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JJmtnramtr  fE&itimt 

of 

MYTHS    AND    LEGENDS 

Limited  to  one  thousand  numbered 

copies,  of  which  this  is  number 


I 


Fr. 


The  Princess  is  given  a  Vision 

(Page  141) 
William  Sewell 


MYTHS   AND    LEGENDS 


nt 


Author  of  "The  Mythology  of  Ancient  Mexico  and 

Peru,"  "The  Popol  7uh,\'(  "The  Civilisation 

of  Ancient  Mexico,  "     A  Dictionary  of 

Mythology,"  etc.,  etc. 


BOSTON 
DAVID  D.  NICKERSON  &  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


PREFACE 

IN  recent  years  a  reawakening  has  taken  place  in  the 
study  of  American  archaeology  and  antiquities, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  labours  of  a  band  of  scholars 
in  the  United  States  and  a  few  enthusiasts  in  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  it  appeared  as  if  the  last  word  had 
been  written  upon  Mexican  archaeology.  The  lack  of 
excavations  and  exploration  had  cramped  the  outlook 
of  scholars,  and  there  was  nothing  for  them  to  work 
upon  save  what  had  been  done  in  this  respect  before 
their  own  time.  The  writers  on  Central  America  who 
lived  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  last  century  relied 
on  the  travels  of  Stephens  and  Norman,  and  never 
appeared  to  consider  it  essential  that  the  country  or  the 
antiquities  in  which  they  specialised  should  be  examined 
anew,  or  that  fresh  expeditions  should  be  equipped  to 
discover  whether  still  further  monuments  existed  relat- 
ing to  the  ancient  peoples  who  raised  the  teocallis  of 
Mexico  and  the  huacas  of  Peru.  True,  the  middle  of 
the  century  was  not  altogether  without  its  Americanist 
explorers,  but  the  researches  of  these  were  performed 
in  a  manner  so  perfunctory  that  but  few  additions  to 
the  science  resulted  from  their  labours. 

Modern  Americanist  archaeology  may  be  said  to  have 
been  the  creation  of  a  brilliant  band  of  scholars  who, 
working  far  apart  and  without  any  attempt  at  co-opera- 
tion, yet  succeeded  in  accomplishing  much.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  Frenchmen  Charnay  and 
de  Rosny,  and  the  Americans  Brinton,  H.  H.  Bancroft, 
and  Squier.  To  these  succeeded  the  German  scholars 
Seler,  Schellhas,  and  Fc>rstemann,  the  Americans  Winsor, 
Starr,  Savile,  and  Cyrus  Thomas,  and  the  English- 
men Payne  and  Sir  Clements  Markham.  These  men, 


PREFACE 

splendidly  equipped  for  the  work  they  had  taken  in 
hand,  were  yet  hampered  by  the  lack  of  reliable  data 
— a  want  later  supplied  partly  by  their  own  ex- 
cavations and  partly  by  the  painstaking  labours  of 
Professor  Maudslay,  principal  of  the  International 
College  of  Antiquities  at  Mexico,  who,  with  his  wife, 
is  responsible  for  the  exact  pictorial  reproductions  of 
many  of  the  ancient  edifices  in  Central  America  and 
Mexico. 

Writers  in  the  sphere  of  Mexican  and  Peruvian 
myth  have  been  few.  The  first  to  attack  the  subject 
in  the  light  of  the  modern  science  of  comparative 
religion  was  Daniel  Garrison  Brinton,  professor  of 
American  languages  and  archaeology  in  the  University 
of  Philadelphia.  He"  has  been  followed  by  Payne, 
Schellhas,  Seler,  and  Forstemann,  all  of  whom,  however, 
have  confined  the  publication  of  their  researches  to 
isolated  articles  in  various  geographical  and  scientific 
journals.  The  remarks  of  mythologists  who  are  not 
also  Americanists  upon  the  subject  of  American  myth 
must  be  accepted  with  caution. 

The  question  of  the  alphabets  of  ancient  America 
is  perhaps  the  most  acute  in  present-day  pre-Columbian 
archaeology.  But  progress  is  being  made  in  this  branch 
of  the  subject,  and  several  scholars  are  working  in 
whole-hearted  co-operation  to  secure  final  results. 

What  has  Great  Britain  accomplished  in  this  new 
and  fascinating  field  of  science  ?  If  the  lifelong  and 
valuable  labours  of  the  late  Sir  Clements  Markham 
be  excepted,  almost  nothing.  It  is  earnestly  hoped 
that  the  publication  of  this  volume  may  prove  the 
means  of  leading  many  English  students  to  the  study 
and  consideration  of  American  archceology. 

There  remains  the  romance  of  old  America.  The 
real  interest  of  American  mediaeval  history  must  ever 

vi 


PREFACE 

circle  around  Mexico  and  Peru — her  golden  empires, 
her  sole  exemplars  of  civilisation  ;  and  it  is  to  the 
books  upon  the  character  of  these  two  nations  that  we 
must  turn  for  a  romantic  interest  as  curious  and  as 
absorbing  as  that  bound  up  in  the  history  of  Egypt  or 
Assyria. 

If  human  interest  is  craved  for  by  any  man,  let  him 
turn  to  the  narratives  of  Garcilasso  el  Inca  de  la  Vega 
and  Ixtlilxochitl,  representatives  and  last  descendants  of 
the  Peruvian  and  Tezcucan  monarchies,  and  read  there 
the  frightful  story  of  the  path  to  fortune  of  red-heeled 
Pizarro  and  cruel  Cortes,  of  the  horrible  cruelties  com- 
mitted upon  the  red  man,  whose  colour  was  "that  of 
the  devil,"  of  the  awful  pageant  of  gold-sated  pirates 
laden  with  the  treasures  of  palaces,  of  the  stripping  of 
temples  whose  very  bricks  were  of  gold,  whose  very 
drain-pipes  were  of  silver,  of  rapine  and  the  sacrilege 
of  high  places,  of  porphyry  gods  dashed  down  the 
pyramidal  sides  of  lofty  teocallis,  of  princesses  torn  from 
the  very  steps  of  the  throne — ay,  read  these  for  the 
most  wondrous  tales  ever  writ  by.  the  hand  of  man, 
tales  by  the  side  of  which  the  fables  of  Araby  seem  dim 
— the  story  of  a  clash  of  worlds,  the  conquest  of  a  new, 
of  an  isolated  hemisphere. 

It  is  usual  to  speak  of  America  as  "a  continent 
without  a  history."  The  folly  of  such  a  statement  is 
extreme.  For  centuries  prior  to  European  occupation 
Central  America  was  the  seat  of  civilisations  boasting  a 
history  and  a  semi-historical  mythology  second  to  none 
in  richness  and  interest.  It  is  only  because  the  sources 
of  that  history  are  unknown  to  the  general  reader  that 
such  assurance  upon  the  lack  of  it  exists. 

Let  us  hope  that  this  book  may  assist  in  attracting 
many  to  the  head-fountain  of  a  river  whose  affluents 
water  many  a  plain  of  beauty  not  the  less  lovely  because 

vii 


PREFACE 

bizarre,    not    the    less    fascinating   because    somewhat 
remote  from  modern  thought. 

In  conclusion  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  courtesy  of 
the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  which  placed  in 
my  hands  a  valuable  collection  of  illustrations  and 
allowed  me  to  select  from  these  at  my  discretion.  The 
pictures  chosen  include  the  drawings  used  as  tail- 
pieces to  chapters  ;  others,  usually  half-tones,  are  duly 
acknowledged  where  they  occur. 

LEWIS  SPENCE 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  FACK 

I.  THE  CIVILISATION  OF  MEXICO  i 

II.  MEXICAN  MYTHOLOGY  54 

III.  MYTHS  AND  LEGENDS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  MEXICANS  118 

IV.  THE  MAYA  RACE  AND  MYTHOLOGY  143 
V.  MYTHS  OF  THE  MAYA  207 

VI.  THE  CIVILISATION  OF  OLD  PERU  248 

VII.  THE  MYTHOLOGY  OF  PERU  291 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  335 

INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY  341 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

TAGS 

The  Princess  is  given  a  Vision  Frontispiect 

The  Descent  of  Que tzalcoatl  xiv 

Toveyo  and  the  Magic  Drum  16 

The  Altar  of  Skulls  26 

The  Guardian  of  the  Sacred  Fire  30 

Pyramid  of  the  Moon  :  Pyramid  of  the  Sun  32 

Ruins  of  the  Pyramid  of  Xochicalco  34 
The  Spirit  of  the  dead  Aztec  is  attacked  by  an  Evil  Spirit 

who  scatters  Clouds  of  Ashes  38 

The  Demon  Izpuzteque  40 

The  Aztec  Calendar  Stone  44 

A  Prisoner  fighting  for  his  Life  48 

Combat  between  Mexican  and  Hilimec  Warriors  53 

Priest  making  an  Incantation  over  an  Aztec  Lady  54 

The  Princess  sees  a  Strange  Man  before  the  Palace  62 

Tezcatlipoca,  Lord  of  the  Night  Winds  66 
The  Infant  War-God  drives  his  Brethren  into  a  Lake  and 

slays  them  70 
Statue  of  Tlaloc,  the  Rain-God  76 
The  Aged  Quetzalcoatl  leaves  Mexico  on  a  Raft  of  Serpents  80 
Ritual  Masks  of  Quetzalcoatl  and  Tezcatlipoca ;  and  Sacri- 
ficial Knife  84 
The  so-called  Teoyaominqui  88 
Statue  of  a  Male  Divinity  go 
Xolotl  94 
The  Quauhxicalli,  or  Solar  Altar  of  Sacrifice  98 

xi 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PACK 


Macuilxochitl  102 

The  Penitent  addressing  the  Fire  106 

Cloud  Serpent,  the  Hunter-God  no 

Mexican  Goddess  114 

Tepoxtecatl  1 1 7 

"  Place  where  the  Heavens  Stood  "  120 

A  Flood-Myth  of  the  Nahua  122 

The  Prince  who  fled  for  his  Life  126 

The  Princess  and  the  Statues  130 

The  King's  Sister  is  shown  the  Valley  of  Dry  Bones  140 

Mexican  Deity  143 

The  Prince  who  went  to  Found  a  City  156 

"  The  Tablet  of  the  Cross  "  160 

Design  on  a  Vase  from  Charaa  representing  Maya  Deities  166 

The  House  of  Bats  172 

Part  of  the  Palace  and  Tower,  Palenque  182 

The  King  who  loved  a  Princess  186 
Teocalli  or  Pyramid  of  Papantla  :  The  Nunnery,  Chichen- 

IUa  188 

Details  of  the  Nunnery  at  Chichen-Itza  190 

The  Old  Woman  who  took  an  Egg  home  192 
Great  Palace  of  Mitla  :  Interior  of  an  Apartment  in  the 

Palace  of  Mitla  198 

Hall  of  the  Columns,  Palace  of  Mitla  202 

The  Twins  make  an  Imitation  Crab  214 

The  Princess  and  the  Gourds  220 

The  Princess  who  made  Friends  of  the  Owls  222 

la  the  House  of  Bats  226 

lii 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

How  the  Sun  appeared  like  the  Moon  230 

Queen  Moo  has  her  Destiny  foretold  240 

The  Rejected  Suitor  342 

Piece  of  Pottery  representing  a  Tapir  247 

Doorway  of  Tiahuanaco  248 

Fortress  at  Ollantay-tampu  250 

"Mother  and  child  are  united"  252 

The  Inca  Fortress  of  Pissac  254 

"  Making  one  of  each  nation  out  of  the  clay  of  the  earth"              258 

Painted  and  Black  Terra-cotta  Vases  280 

Conducting  the  White  Llama  to  the  Sacrifice  312 

"The  birdlike  beings  were  in  reality  women  "  318 

"A  beautiful  youth  appeared  to  Thonapa  "  320 

11  He  sang  the  song  of  Chamayhuarisca"  322 

"The  younger  one  flew  away  "  324 

"  His  wife  at  first  indignantly  denied  the  accusation  "  326 

"  He  saw  a  very  beautiful  girl  crying  bitterly  "  328 

MAPS 

The  Valley  of  Mexico  330 

Distribution  of  the  Races  in  Ancient  Mexico  331 

Distribution  of  the  Races  under  the  Empire  of  the  Incas  333 


rui 


°/r§ 


THE  DESCENT  OF  QUITZALCO 


ATL 


The  Civilisations  of  the  New  "World 

THERE  is  now  no  question  as  to  the  indigenous 
origin  of  the  civilisations  of ,  Mexico,  Central 
America,  and  Peru.  Upon  few  subjects,  how- 
ever,  has  so  much  mistaken  erudition  been  lavished. 
The  beginnings  of  the  races  who  inhabited  these 
regions,  and  the  cultures  which  they  severally  created, 
have  been  referred  to  nearly  every  civilised  or  semi- 
civilised  nation  of  antiquity,  and  wild  if  fascinating 
theories  have  been  advanced  with  the  intention  of 
showing  that  civilisation  was  initiated  upon  American 
soil  by  Asiatic  or  European  influence.  These  specula- 
tions were  for  the  most  part  put  forward  by  persons 
who  possessed  but  a  merely  general  acquaintance  with 
the  circumstances  of  American  aboriginal  civilisation, 
and  who  were  struck  by  the  superficial  resemblances 
which  undoubtedly  exist  between  American  and  Asiatic 
peoples,  customs,  and  art-forms,  but  which  cease  to  be 
apparent  to  the  Americanist,  who  perceives  in  them  only 
such  likenesses  as  inevitably  occur  in  the  work  of  men 
situated  in  similar  environments  and  surrounded  by 
similar  social  and  religious  conditions. 

The  Maya  of  Yucatan  may  be  regarded  as  the  most 
highly  civilised  of  the  peoples  who  occupied  the 
American  continent  before  the  advent  of  Europeans, 
and  it  is  usually  their  culture  which  we  are  asked  to 
believe  had  its  seat  of  origin  in  Asia.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  refute  this  theory  in  detail,  as  that  has  already  been 
ably  accomplished.1  But  it  may  be  remarked  that  the 
surest  proof  of  the  purely  native  origin  of  American 

1  By  Payne  in  The  Nfto  World  c ailed  America,  London,  1892-99. 

A  I 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
civilisation  is  to  be  found  in  the  unique  nature  of 
American  art,  the  undoubted  result  of  countless 
centuries  of  isolation.  American  language,  arithmetic, 
and  methods  of  time-reckoning,  too,  bear  no  resem- 
blance to  other  systems,  European  or  Asiatic,  and  we 
may  be  certain  that  had  a  civilising  race  entered 
America  from  Asia  it  would  have  left  its  indelible 
impre:s  upon  things  so  intensely  associated  with  the  life 
of  a  people  as  well  as  upon  the  art  and  architecture  of 
the  country,  for  they  are  as  much  the  product  of  culture 
as  is  the  ability  to  raise  temples. 

Evidence  of  Animal  and  Plant  Life 

It  is  impossible  in  this  connection  to  ignore  the 
evidence  in  favour  of  native  advancement  which  can  be 
adduced  from  the  artificial  production  of  food  in 
America.  Nearly  all  the  domesticated  animals  and 
cultivated  food-plants  found  on  the  continent  at  the 
period  of  the  discovery  were  totally  different  from 
those  known  to  the  Old  World.  Maize,  cocoa,  tobacco, 
and  the  potato,  with  a  host  of  useful  plants,  were  new 
to  the  European  conquerors,  and  the  absence  of  such 
familiar  animals  as  the  horse,  cow,  and  sheep,  besides 
a  score  of  lesser  animals,  is  eloquent  proof  of  the 
prolonged  isolation  which  the  American  continent 
underwent  subsequent  to  its  original  settlement  by 
man. 


of  American  Man 
An  Asiatic  origin  is,  of  course,  admitted  for  the 
aborigines  of  America,  but  it  undoubtedly  stretched 
back  into  that  dim  Tertiary  Era  when  man  was  little  more 
than  beast,  and  language  as  yet  was  not,  or  at  the  best 
was  only  half  formed.  Later  immigrants  there  certainly 
were,  but  these  probably  arrived  by  way  of  Behring 


TRADITIONS  OF  INTERCOURSE  WITH  ASIA 

Strait,  and  not  by  the  land-bridge  connecting  Asia  and 
America  by  which  the  first-comers  found  entrance.  At 
a  later  geological  period  the  general  level  of  the  North 
American  continent  was  higher  than  at  present,  and  a 
broad  isthmus  connected  it  with  Asia.  During  this 
prolonged  elevation  vast  littoral  plains,  now  submerged, 
extended  continuously  from  the  American  to  the  Asiatic 
shore,  affording  an  easy  route  of  migration  to  a  type  of 
man  from  whom  both  the  Mongolian  branches  may  have 
sprung.  But  this  type,  little  removed  from  the  animal 
as  it  undoubtedly  was,  carried  with  it  none  of  the 
refinements  of  art  or  civilisation  ;  and  if  any  resem- 
blances occur  between  the  art-forms  or  polity  of  its 
equal  descendants  in  Asia  and  America,  they  are  due  to 
the  influence  of  a  remote  common  ancestry,  and  not 
to  any  later  influx  of  Asiatic  civilisation  to  American 
shores. 

Traditions  of  Intercourse  with  Asia 

The  few  traditions  of  Asiatic  intercourse  with  America 
are,  alas  !  easily  dissipated.  It  is  a  dismal  business  to 
be  compelled  to  refute  the  dreams  of  others.  How 
much  more  fascinating  would  American  history  have 
been  had  Asia  sowed  the  seeds  of  her  own  peculiar 
civilisation  in  the  western  continent,  which  would  then 
have  become  a  newer  and  further  East,  a  more  glowing 
and  golden  Orient !  But  America  possesses  a  fascina- 
tion almost  as  intense  when  there  falls  to  be  considered 
the  marvel  of  the  evolution  of  her  wondrous  civilisa- 
tions— the  flowers  of  progress  of  a  new,  of  an  isolated 
world. 

The  idea  that  the  "  Fu-Sang  "  of  the  Chinese  annals 
alluded  to  America  was  rendered  illusory  by  Klaproth, 
who  showed  its  identity  with  a  Japanese  island.  It  is 
not  impossible  that  Chinese  and  Japanese  vessels  may 

* 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
have  drifted  on  to  the  American  coasts,  but  that  they 
sailed  thither  of  set  purpose  is  highly  improbable. 
Gomara,  the  Mexican  historian,  states  that  those  who 
served  with  Coronado's  expedition  in  1542  saw  off  the 
Pacific  coast  certain  ships  having  their  prows  decorated 
with  gold  and  silver,  and  laden  with  merchandise,  and 
these  they  supposed  to  be  of  Cathay  or  China, "  because 
they  intimated  by  signs  that  they  had  been  thirty  days 
on  their  voyage."  Like  most  of  these  interesting 
stories,  however,  the  tale  has  no  foundation  in  fact, 
as  the  incident  cannot  be  discovered  in  the  original 
account  of  the  expedition,  published  in  1838  in  the 
travel-collection  of  Ternaux-Compans. 

Legends  of  European  Intercourse 

We  shall  find  the  traditions,  one  might  almost  call 
them  legends,  of  early  European  intercourse  with 
America  little  more  satisfactory  than  those  which 
recount  its  ancient  connection  with  Asia.  We  may 
dismiss  the  sagas  of  the  discovery  of  America  by  the 
Norsemen,  which  are  by  no  means  mere  tradition,  and 
pass  on  to  those  in  which  the  basis  of  fact  is  weaker 
and  the  legendary  interest  more  strong.  We  are  told 
that  when  the  Norsemen  drove  forth  those  Irish  monks 
who  had  settled  in  Iceland,  the  fugitives  voyaged  to 
"  Great  Ireland,"  by  which  many  antiquarians  of  the 
older  school  imagine  the  author  of  the  myth  to  have 
meant  America.  The  Irish  Book  of  Lismore  recounts 
the  voyage  of  St.  Brandan,  Abbot  of  Cluainfert,  in 
Ireland,  to  an  island  in  the  ocean  which  Providence 
had  intended  as  the  abode  of  saints.  It  gives  a  glowing 
account  of  his  seven  years'  cruise  in  western  waters, 
and  tells  of  numerous  discoveries,  among  them  a  hill 
of  fire  and  an  endless  island,  which  he  quitted  after 
*n  unavailing  journey  of  forty  days,  loading  his  ships 
4 


THE  LEGEND  OF  MADOC 

with  its  fruits,  and  returning  home.  Many  Norse 
legends  exist  regarding  this  "  Greater  Ireland,"  or 
"  Huitramanna  Land"  (White  Man's  Land),  among 
them  one  concerning  a  Norseman  who  was  cast  away 
on  its  shores,  and  who  found  there  a  race  of  white  men 
who  went  to  worship  their  gods  bearing  banners,  and 
"  shouting  with  a  loud  voice."  There  is,  of  course, 
the  bare  possibility  that  the  roving  Norsemen  may 
have  on  occasions  drifted  or  have  been  cast  away  as  far 
south  as  Mexico,  and  such  an  occurrence  becomes  the 
more  easy  of  belief  when  we  remember  that  they 
certainly  reached  the  shores  of  North  America. 

The  Legend  of  Madoc 

A  much  more  interesting  because  more  probable  story 
is  that  which  tells  of  the  discovery  of  distant  lands 
across  the  western  ocean  by  Madoc,  a  princeling  of 
North  Wales,  in  the  year  1 1 70.  It  is  recorded  in 
Hakluyt's  English  Voyages  and  Powel's  History  of  W 'ales. 
Madoc,  the  son  of  Owen  Gwyneth,  disgusted  by  the 
strife  of  his  brothers  for  the  principality  of  their  dead 
father,  resolved  to  quit  such  an  uncongenial  atmosphere, 
and,  fitting  out  ships  with  men  and  munition,  sought 
adventure  by  sea,  sailing  west,  and  leaving  the  coast  of 
Ireland  so  far  north  that  he  came  to  a  land  unknown, 
where  he  saw  many  strange  things.  "This  land,"  says 
Hakluyt,  "  must  needs  be  some  part  of  that  country  of 
which  the  Spaniards  affirme  themselves  to  be  the  first 
finders  since  Hanno's  time,"  and  through  this  allusion 
we  are  enabled  to  see  how  these  legends  relating  to 
mythical  lands  came  to  be  associated  with  the  American 
continent.  Concerning  the  land  discovered  by  Madoc 
many  tales  were  current  in  Wales  in  mediaeval  times. 
Madoc  on  his  return  declared  that  it  was  pleasant  and 
fruitful,  but  uninhabited.  He  succeeded  in  persuading 

5 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
a  large  number  of  people  to  accompany  him  to  this 
delectable  region,  and,  as  he  never  returned,  Hakluyt 
concludes  that  the  descendants  of  the  folk  he  took  with 
him  composed  the  greater  part  of  the  population  of  the 
America  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a  conclusion  in 
which  he  has  been  supported  by  more  than  one  modern 
antiquarian.  Indeed,  the  wildest  fancies  have  been  based 
upon  this  legend,  and  stories  of  Welsh-speaking  Indians 
who  were  able-  to  converse  with  Cymric  immigrants  to 
the  American  colonies  have  been  received  with  compla- 
cency by  the  older  school  of  American  historians  as 
the  strongest  confirmation  of  the  saga.  It  is  notable, 
however,  that  Henry  VII  of  England,  the  son  of  a 
Welshman,  may  have  been  influenced  in  his  patronage 
of  the  early  American  explorers  by  this  legend  of 
Madoc,  as  it  is  known  that  he  employed  one  Guttyn 
Owen,  a  Welsh  historiographer,  to  draw  up  his  paternal 
pedigree,  and  that  this  same  Guttyn  includ-d  the  story 
in  his  works.  Such  legends  as  those  relating  to  Atlantis 
and  Antiiia  scarcely  fall  within  the  scope  of  American 
myth,  as  they  undoubtedly  relate  to  early  communication 
with  the  Canaries  and  Azores. 

American  Myths  of  the  Discovery 

But  what  were  the  speculations  of  the  Red  Men  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  ?  Were  there  no  rumours 
there,  no  legends  of  an  Eastern  world  ?  Immediately 
prior  to  the  discovery  there  was  in  America  a  widely 
disseminated  belief  that  at  a  relatively  remote  period 
strangers  from  the  east  had  visited  American  soil, 
eventually  returning  to  their  own  abodes  in  the  Land 
of  Sunrise.  Such,  for  example,  was  thf  Mexican  legend 
of  Quetzalcoatl,  to  which  we  shall  revert  later  in  its  more 
essentially  mythical  connection.  He  landed  with  several 
companions  at  Vera  Cruz,  and  speedily  brought  to  bear 
6 


A  PERUVIAN  PROPHECY 

the  power  of  a  civilising  agency  upon  native  opinion. 
In  the  ancient  Mexican  pinturas,  or  paintings,  he  is 
represented  as  being  habited  in  a  long  black  gown, 
fringed  with  white  crosses.  After  sojourning  with  the 
Mexicans  for  a  number  of  years,  during  which  time  he 
initiated  them  into  the  arts  of  life  and  civilisation,  he 
departed  from  their  land  on  a  magic  raft,  promising, 
however,  to  return.  His  second  advent  was  anxiously 
looked  for,  and  when  Cortes  and  his  companions  arrived 
at  Vera  Cruz,  the  identical  spot  at  which  Quetzalcoatl 
was  supposed  to  have  set  out  on  his  homeward  journey, 
the  Mexicans  fully  believed  him  to  be  the  returned 
hero.  Of  course  Montezuma,  their  monarch,  was  not 
altogether  taken  by  surprise  at  the  coming  of  the  white 
man,  as  he  had  been  informed  of  the  arrival  of  mys- 
terious strangers  in  Yucatan  and  elsewhere  in  Central 
America  ;  but  in  the  eyes  of  the  commonalty  the  Spanish 
leader  was  a  "hero-god"  indeed.  In  this  interesting 
figure  several  of  the  monkish  chroniclers  of  New  Spain 
saw  the  Apostle  St.  Thomas,  who  had  journeyed  to  the 
American  continent  to  effect  its  conversion  to  Christianity. 

A  Peruvian  Prophecy 

The  Mexicans  were  by  no  means  singular  in  their 
presentiments.  When  Hernando  de  Soto,  on  land- 
ing in  Peru,  first  met  the  Inca  Huascar,  the  latter  re- 
lated an  ancient  prophecy  which  his  father,  Huaina 
Ccapac,  had  repeated  on  his  death-bed,  that  in  the  reign 
of  the  thirteenth  Inca  white  men  of  surpassing  strength 
and  valour  would  come  from  their  father  the  Sun,  and 
subject  the  Peruvians  to  their  rule.  "  I  command 
you,"  said  the  dying  king,  "  to  yield  them  homage  and 
obedience,  for  they  will  be  of  a  nature  superior  to  ours."  l 
But  the  most  interesting  of  American  legends  connected 
1  Garciksso  el  Inca  de  la  Vega,  Hist,  des  Incus,  lib.  ix.  cap.  15. 

7 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

with  the  discovery  is  that  in  which  the  prophecy  of 
the  Maya  priest  Chilan  Balam  is  described.  Father 
Lizana,  a  venerable  Spanish  author,  records  the  pro- 
phecy, which  he  states  was  very  well  known  throughout 
Yucatan,  as  does  Villagutierre,  who  quotes  it. 

The  Prophecy  of  Chilan  Balam 

Part  of  this  strange  prophecy  runs  as  follows  :  "  At 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  age,  when  Itza  is  at  the  height 
of  its  power,  as  also  the  city  called  Tancah,  the  signal 
of  God  will  appear  on  the  heights,  and  the  Cross  with 
which  the  world  was  enlightened  will  be  manifested. 
There  will  be  variance  of  men's  will  in  future  times, 
when  this  signal  shall  be  brought.  .  .  .  Receive  your 
barbarous  bearded  guests  from  the  east,  who  bring  the 
signal  of  God,  who  comes  to  us  in  mercy  and  pity. 
The  time  of  our  life  is  coming.  .  .  ." 

It  would  seem  from  the  perusal  of  this  prophecy  that 
a  genuine  substratum  of  native  tradition  has  been  over- 
laid and  coloured  by  the  influence  of  the  early  Spanish 
missionaries.  The  terms  of  the  announcement  are  much 
too  exact,  and  the  language  employed  is  obviously 
Scriptural.  But  the  native  books  of  Chilan  Balam, 
whence  the  prophecy  is  taken,  are  much  less  explicit, 
and  the  genuineness  of  their  character  is  evinced  by 
the  idiomatic  use  of  the  Maya  tongue,  which,  in  the 
form  they  present  it  in,  could  have  been  written  by  none 
save  those  who  had  habitually  employed  it  from  infancy. 
As  regards  the  prophetic  nature  of  these  deliverances 
it  is  known  that  the  Chilan,  or  priest,  was  wont  to  utter 
publicly  at  the  end  of  certain  prolonged  periods  a  pro- 
phecy forecasting  the  character  of  the  similar  period 
to  come,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  dis- 
tant rumours  of  the  coming  of  the  white  man  had 
reached  the  ears  of  several  of  the  seers. 
8 


THE  TYPE  OF  MEXICAN  CIVILISATION 

These  vague  intimations  that  the  seas  separated  them 
from  a  great  continent  where  dwelt  beings  like  them- 
selves seem  to  have  been  common  to  white  and  red 
men  alike.  And  who  shall  say  by  what  strange  magic 
of  telepathy  they  were  inspired  in  the  minds  of  the 
daring  explorers  and  the  ascetic  priests  who  gave  ex- 
pression to  them  in  act  and  utterance  ?  The  discovery 
of  America  was  much  more  than  a  mere  scientific  pro- 
cess, and  romance  rather  than  the  cold  speculations 
of  mediaeval  geography  urged  men  to  tempt  the  dim 
seas  of  the  West  in  quest  of  golden  islands  seen  in 
dreams. 

The  Type  of  Mexican  Civilisation 

The  first  civilised  American  people  with  whom  the 
discoverers  came  into  contact  were  those  of  the  Nahua 
or  ancient  Mexican  race.  We  use  the  term  "  civilised  " 
advisedly,  for  although  several  authorities  of  standing 
have  refused  to  regard  the  Mexicans  as  a  people  who 
had  achieved  such  a  state  of  culture  as  would  entitle 
them  to  be  classed  among  civilised  communities,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  they  had  advanced  nearly  as  far  as  it 
was  possible  for  them  to  proceed  when  their  environ- 
ment and  the  nature  of  the  circumstances  which  handi- 
capped them  are  taken  into  consideration.  In  architec- 
ture they  had  evolved  a  type  of  building,  solid  yet 
wonderfully  graceful,  which,  if  not  so  massive  as  the 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian,  was  yet  more  highly  decorative. 
Their  artistic  outlook  as  expressed  in  their  painting 
and  pottery  was  more  versatile  and  less  conventional 
than  that  of  the  ancient  people  of  the  Orient,  their 
social  system  was  of  a  more  advanced  type,  and  a  less 
rigorous  attitude  was  evinced  by  the  ruling  caste 
toward  the  subject  classes.  Yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  picture  is  darkened  by  the  terrible  if  picturesque 

9 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
rites  which  attended  their  religious  ceremonies,  and  the 
dread  shadow  of  human  sacrifice  which  eternally  over- 
hung their  teeming  populations.  Nevertheless,  the 
standard  of  morality  was  high,  justice  was  even-handed, 
the  forms  of  government  were  comparatively  mild,  and 
but  for  the  fanaticism  which  demanded  such  troops  of 
victims,  we  might  justly  compare  the  civilisation  of 
ancient  Mexico  with  that  of  the  peoples  of  old  China 
or  India,  if  the  literary  activity  of  the  Oriental  states  be 
discounted. 

The  Mexican  Race 

The  race  which  was  responsible  for  this  varied  and 
highly  coloured  civilisation  was  that  known  as  the 
Nahua  (Those  who  live  by  Rule),  a  title  adopted  by 
them  to  distinguish  them  from  those  tribes  who  still 
roamed  in  an  unsettled  condition  over  the  contiguous 
plains  of  New  Mexico  and  the  more  northerly  tracts. 
This  term  was  employed  by  them  to  designate  the  race  as 
a  whole,  but  it  was  composed  of  many  diverse  elements, 
the  characteristics  of  which  were  rendered  still  more 
various  by  the  adoption  into  one  or  other  of  the  tribes 
which  composed  it  of  surrounding  aboriginal  peoples. 
Much  controversy  has  raged  round  the  question 
regarding  the  original  home  of  the  Nahua,  but  their 
migration  legends  consistently  point  to  a  northern 
origin ;  and  when  the  close  affinity  between  the  art-forms 
and  mythology  of  the  present-day  natives  of  British  Col- 
umbia and  those  of  the  Nahua  comes  to  be  considered 
along  with  the  very  persistent  legends  of  a  prolonged 
pilgrimage  from  the  North,  where  they  dwelt  in  a  place 
"  by  the  water,"  the  conclusion  that  the  Nahua  emanated 
from  the  region  indicated  is  well-nigh  irresistible.1 

»  See  Payne,  History  of  the  Ntte  World  called  America,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  373  tt  ft?. 

10 


LEGENDS  OF  MEXICAN  MIGRATION 
In  Nahua  tradition  the  name  of  the  locality  whence 
the  race  commenced  its  wanderings  is  called  Aztlan 
(The  Place  of  Reeds),  but  this  place-name  is  of  little 
or  no  value  as  a  guide  to  any  given  region,  though 
probably  every  spot  betwixt  Behring  Strait  and  Mexico 
has  been  identified  with  it  by  zealous  antiquarians. 
Other  names  discovered  in  the  migration  legends  are 
Tlapallan  (The  Country  of  Bright  Colours)  and  Chico- 
moztoc  (The  Seven  Caves),  and  these  may  perhaps  be 
identified  with  New  Mexico  or  Arizona. 

Legends  of  Mexican  Migration 

All  early  writers  on  the  history  of  Mexico  agree 
that  the  Toltecs  were  the  first  of  the  several  swarms 
of  Nahua  who  streamed  upon  the  Mexican  plateau  in 
ever-widening  waves.  Concerning  the  reality  of  this 
people  so  little  is  known  that  many  authorities  of 
standing  have  regarded  them  as  wholly  mythical,  while 
others  profess  to  see  in  them  a  veritable  race,  the 
founders  of  Mexican  civilisation.  The  author  has 
already  elaborated  b:s  theory  of  this  difficult  question 
elsewhere,1  but  will  briefly  refer  to  it  when  he  comes  to 
deal  with  the  subject  of  the  Toltec  civilisation  and  the 
legends  concerning  it.  For  the  present  we  must  regard 
the  Toltecs  merely  as  a  race  alluded  to  in  a  migration 
myth  as  the  first  Nahua  immigrants  to  the  region 
or  Mexico.  Ixtlilxochitl,  a  native  chronicler  who 
flourished  shortly  after  the  Spanish  conquest  of  Mexico, 
gives  two  separate  accounts  of  the  early  Toltec  migra- 
tions, the  first  of  which  goes  back  to  the  period  of 
their  arrival  in  the  fabled  land  of  Tlapallan,  alluded  to 
above.  In  this  account  Tlapallan  is  described  as  a 
region  near  the  sea,  which  the  Toltecs  reached  by 
voyaging  southward,  skirting  the  coasts  of  California. 
1  See  Spence,  Civilisation  qf  Ancient  Mexico,  chap.  it. 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
This  account  must  be  received  with  the  greatest  caution. 
But  we  know  that  the  natives  of  British  Columbia  have 
been  expert  in  the  use  of  the  canoe  from  an  early 
period,  and  that  the  Mexican  god  Quetzalcoatl,  who 
is  probably  originally  derived  from  a  common  source 
with  their  deity  Yetl,  is  represented  as  being  skilled  in 
the  management  of  the  craft.  It  is,  therefore,  not  out- 
side the  bounds  of  possibility  that  the  early  swarms  of 
Nahua  immigrants  made  their  way  to  Mexico  by  sea, 
but  it  is  much  more  probable  that  their  migrations  took 
place  by  land,  following  the  level  country  at  the  base 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  Toltec  Upheaval 

Like  nearly  all  legendary  immigrants,  the  Toltecs 
did  not  set  out  to  colonise  distant  countries  from  any 
impulse  of  their  own,  but  were  the  victims  of  inter- 
necine dissension  in  the  homeland,  and  were  expelled 
from  the  community  to  seek  their  fortunes  elsewhere. 
Thus  thrust  forth,  they  set  their  faces  southward,  and 
reached  Tlapallan  in  the  year  i  Tecpatl  (A.D.  387). 
Passing  the  country  of  Xalisco,  they  effected  a  landing 
at  Huatulco,  and  journeyed  down  the  coast  until  they 
reached  Tochtepec,  whence  they  pushed  inland  to 
Tollantzinco.  To  enable  them  to  make  this  journey 
they  required  no  less  than  104  years.  Ixtlilxochitl 
furnishes  another  account  of  the  Toltec  migration  in 
his  Rc/aciones,  a  work  dealing  with  the  early  history  of 
the  Mexican  races.  In  this  he  recounts  how  the  chiefs 
of  Tlapallan,  who  had  revolted  against  the  royal  power, 
were  banished  from  that  region  in  A.D.  439.  Lingering 
near  their  ancient  territory  for  the  space  of  eight  years, 
they  then  journeyed  to  Tlapallantzinco,  where  they 
halted  for  three  years  before  setting  out  on  a  prolonged 
pilgrimage,  which  occupied  the  tribe  for  over  a  century, 
Is 


MYTHS  OF  THE  TOLTECS 

and  in  the  course  of  which  it  halted  at  no  less  than 
thirteen  different  resting-places,  six  of  which  can  be 
traced  to  stations  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  remainder 
to  localities  in  the  north  of  Mexico. 

Artificial  Nature  of  the  Migration  Myths 

It  is  plain  from  internal  evidence  that  these  two 
legends  of  the  Toltec  migrations  present  an  artificial 
aspect.  But  if  we  cannot  credit  them  in  detail,  that  is 
not  to  say  that  they  do  not  describe  in  part  an  actual 
pilgrimage.  They  are  specimens  of  numerous  migration 
myths  which  are  related  concerning  the  various  branches 
of  the  Mexican  races.  Few  features  of  interest  are 
presented  in  them,  and  they  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
wearisome  repetition  and  divergence  in  essential  details. 

Myths  of  the  Toltecs 

But  we  enter  a  much  more  fascinating  domain  when 
we  come  to  peruse  the  myths  regarding  the  Toltec 
kingdom  and  civilisation,  for,  before  entering  upon 
the  origin  or  veritable  history  of  the  Toltec  race,  it 
will  be  better  to  consider  the  native  legends  concerning 
them.  These  exhibit  an  almost  Oriental  exuberance 
of  imagination  and  colouring,  and  forcibly  remind  the 
reader  of  the  gorgeous  architectural  and  scenic  de- 
scriptions in  the  Arabian  Nights.  The  principal  sources 
of  these  legends  are  the  histories  of  Zumarraga  and 
Ixtlilxochitl.  The  latter  is  by  no  means  a  satisfactory 
authority,  but  he  has  succeeded  in  investing  the  tradi- 
tions of  his  native  land  with  no  inconsiderable  degree 
of  charm.  The  Toltecs,  he  says,  founded  the  magni- 
ficent city  of  Tollan  in  the  year  566  of  the  Incarnation. 
This  city,  the  site  of  which  is  now  occup  cd  by  the 
modern  town  of  Tula,  was  situated  north-west  of  the 
mountains  which  bound  the  Mexican  valley.  Thither 

13 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
were  the  Toltecs  guided  by  the  powerful  necromancer 
Hueymatzin  (Great  Hand),  and  under  his  direction 
they  decided  to  build  a  city  upon  the  site  of  what  had 
been  their  place  of  bivouac.  For  six  years  they  toiled 
at  the  building  of  Tollan,  and  magnificent  edifices, 
palaces,  and  temples  arose,  the  whole  forming  a 
capital  of  a  splendour  unparalleled  in  the  New  World. 
The  valley  wherein  it  stood  was  known  as  the  "  Place 
of  Fruits,"  in  allusion  to  its  great  fertility.  The 
surrounding  rivers  teemed  with  fish,  and  the  hills 
which  encircled  this  delectable  site  sheltered  large 
herds  of  game.  But  as  yet  the  Toltecs  were  without 
a  ruler,  and  in  the  seventh  year  of  their  occupation  of 
the  city  the  assembled  chieftains  took  counsel  together, 
and  resolved  to  surrender  their  power  into  the  hands 
of  a  monarch  whom  the  people  might  elect.  The 
choice  fell  upon  Chalchiuh  Tlatonac  (Shining  Precious 
Stone),  who  reigned  for  fifty-two  years. 

Legends  of  Toltec  Artistry 

Happily  settled  in  their  new  country,  and  ruled  over 
by  a  king  whom  they  could  regard  with  reverence,  the 
Toltecs  made  rapid  progress  in  the  various  arts,  and 
their  city  began  to  be  celebrated  far  and  wide  for  the 
excellence  of  its  craftsmen  and  the  beauty  of  its  archi- 
tecture and  pottery.  The  name  of  "Toltec,"  in  fact, 
came  to  be  regarded  by  the  surrounding  peoples  as 
synonymous  with  "  artist,"  and  as  a  kind  of  hall-mark 
which  guaranteed  the  superiority  of  any  article  of 
Toltec  workmanship.  Everything  in  and  about  the 
rjty  was  eloquent  of  the  taste  and  artistry  of  its  founders. 
The  very  walls  were  encrusted  with  rare  stones,  and 
their  masonry  was  so  beautifully  chiselled  and  laid  as 
to  resemble  the  choicest  mosaic.  One  of  the  edifices  of 
which  the  inhabitants  of  Tollan  were  most  justly  proud 
14 


HUEMAC  THE  WICKED 

was  the  temple  wherein  their  high-priest  officiated. 
This  building  was  a  very  gem  of  architectural  art  and 
mural  decoration.  It  contained  four  apartments.  The 
walls  of  the  first  were  inlaid  with  gold,  the  second  with 
precious  stones  of  every  description,  the  third  with 
beautiful  sea-shells  of  all  conceivable  hues  and  of  the 
most  brilliant  and  tender  shades  encrusted  in  bricks  of 
silver,  which  sparkled  in  the  sun  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  dazzle  the  eyes  of  beholders.  The  fourth  apartment 
was  formed  of  a  brilliant  red  stone,  ornamented  with 
shells. 

The  House  of  Feathers 

Still  more  fantastic  and  weirdly  beautiful  was  another 
edifice,  "The  House  of  Feathers."  This  also  pos- 
sessed four  apartments,  one  decorated  with  feathers 
of  a  brilliant  yellow,  another  with  the  radiant  and 
sparkling  hues  of  the  Blue  Bird.  These  were  woven 
into  a  kind  of  tapestry,  and  placed  against  the  walls 
in  graceful  hangings  and  festoons.  An  apartment 
described  as  of  entrancing  beauty  was  that  in  which  the 
decorative  scheme  consisted  of  plumage  of  the  purest 
and  most  dazzling  white.  The  remaining  chamber  was 
hung  with  feathers  of  a  brilliant  red,  plucked  from  the 
most  beautiful  birds. 

Huemac  the  Wicked 

A  succession  of  more  or  less  able  kings  succeeded 
the  founder  of  the  Toltec  monarchy,  until  in  A.D.  994 
Huemac  II  ascended  the  throne  of  Tollan.  He  ruled 
first  with  wisdom,  and  paid  great  attention  to  the  duties 
of  the  state  and  religion.  But  later  he  fell  from  the 
high  place  he  had  made  for  himself  in  the  regard  of 
the  people  by  his  faithless  deception  of  them  and  his  in- 
temperate and  licentious  habits.  The  provinces  rose  in 

1C 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
revolt,  and  many  signs  and  gloomy  omens  foretold  the 
downfall  of  the  city.  Toveyo,  a  cunning  sorcerer,  col- 
lected a  great  concourse  of  people  near  Tollan,  and  by 
dint  of  beating  upon  a  magic  drum  until  the  darkest 
hours  of  the  night,  forced  them  to  dance  to  its  sound 
until,  exhausted  by  their  efforts,  they  fell  headlong  over 
a  dizzy  precipice  into  a  deep  ravine,  where  they  were 
turned  into  stone.  Toveyo  also  maliciously  destroyed 
a  stone  bridge,  so  that  thousands  of  people  fell  into  the 
river  beneath  and  were  drowned.  The  neighbouring 
volcanoes  burst  into  eruption,  presenting  a  frightful 
aspect,  and  grisly  apparitions  could  be  seen  among  the 
flames  threatening  the  city  with  terrible  gestures  of 
menace. 

The  rulers  of  Tollan  resolved  to  lose  no  time  in 
placating  the  gods,  whom  they  decided  from  the 
portents  must  have  conceived  the  most  violent  wrath 
against  their  capital.  They  therefore  ordained  a  great 
sacrifice  of  war -captives.  But  upon  the  first  of  the 
victims  being  placed  upon  the  altar  a  still  more  terrible 
catastrophe  occurred.  In  the  method  of  sacrifice 
common  to  the  Nahua  race  the  breast  of  a  youth  was 
opened  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  the  heart,  but  no 
such  organ  could  the  officiating  priest  perceive.  More- 
over the  veins  of  the  victim  were  bloodless.  Such  a 
deadly  odour  was  exhaled  from  the  corpse  that  a  terrible 
pestilence  arose,  which  caused  the  death  of  thousands  of 
Toltecs.  Huemac,  the  unrighteous  monarch  who  had 
brought  all  this  suffering  upon  his  folk,  was  confronted 
in  the  forest  by  the  Tlalocs,  or  gods  of  moisture,  and 
humbly  petitioned  these  deities  to  spare  him,  and  not 
to  take  from  him  his  wealth  and  rank.  But  the  gods 
were  disgusted  at  the  callous  selfishness  displayed  in  his 
desires,  and  departed,  threatening  the  Toltec  race  with 
six  years  of  plagues. 
16 


Toveyo  and  the  Magic  Drum 
William  Sewell 


16 


KING  ACXITL 

The  Plagues  of  the  Toltecs 

In  the  next  winter  such  a  severe  frost  visited  the  land 
that  all  crops  and  plants  were  killed.  A  summer  of 
torrid  heat  followed,  so  intense  in  its  suffocating  fierce- 
ness that  the  streams  were  dried  up  and  the  very  rocks 
were  melted.  Then  heavy  rain-storms  descended,  which 
flooded  the  streets  and  ways,  and  terrible  tempests 
swept  through  the  land.  Vast  numbers  of  loathsome 
toads  invaded  the  valley,  consuming  the  refuse  left 
by  the  destructive  frost  and  heat,  and  entering  the  very 
houses  of  the  people.  In  the  following  year  a  terrible 
drought  caused  the  death  of  thousands  from  starva- 
tion, and  the  ensuing  winter  was  again  a  marvel  of 
severity.  Locusts  descended  in  cloud-like  swarms,  and 
hail-  and  thunder-storms  completed  the  wreck.  During 
these  visitations  nine-tenths  of  the  people  perished, 
and  all  artistic  endeavour  ceased  because  of  the  awful 
struggle  for  food. 

King  AczitI 

With  the  cessation  of  these  inflictions  the  wicked 
Huemac  resolved  upon  a  more  upright  course  of  life, 
and  became  most  assiduous  for  the  welfare  and  proper 
government  of  his  people.  But  he  had  announced  that 
Acxitl,  his  illegitimate  son,  should  succeed  him,  and 
had  further  resolved  to  abdicate  at  once  in  favour  of 
this  youth.  With  the  Toltecs,  as  with  most  primitive 
peoples,  the  early  kings  were  regarded  as  divine,  and  the 
attempt  to  place  on  the  throne  one  who  was  not  of  the 
royal  blood  was  looked  upon  as  a  serious  offence  against 
the  gods.  A  revolt  ensued,  but  its  two  principal  leaders 
were  bought  over  by  promises  of  preferment.  Acxitl 
ascended  the  throne,  and  for  a  time  ruled  wisely.  But 
he  soon,  like  his  father,  gave  way  to  a  life  of  dissipation, 

»  17 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
and  succeeded  in  setting  a  bad  example  to  the  members 
of  his  court  and  to  the  priesthood,  the  vicious  spirit 
communicating  itself  to  all  classes  of  his  subjects  and 
permeating  every  rank  of  society.  The  iniquities  of 
the  people  of  the  capital  and  the  enormities  practised 
by  the  royal  favourites  caused  such  scandal  in  the  out- 
lying provinces  that  at  length  they  broke  into  open 
revolt,  and  Huehuetzin,  chief  of  an  eastern  viceroyalty, 
joined  to  himself  two  other  malcontent  lords  and 
marched  upon  the  city  of  Tollan  at  the  head  of  a  strong 
force.  Acxitl  could  not  muster  an  army  sufficiently 
powerful  to  repel  the  rebels,  and  was  forced  to  resort 
to  the  expedient  of  buying  them  off  with  rich  presents, 
thus  patching  up  a  truce.  But  the  fate  of  Tollan  was 
in  the  balance.  Hordes  of  rude  Chichimec  savages, 
profiting  by  the  civil  broils  in  the  Toltec  state,  in- 
vaded the  lake  region  of  Anahuac,  or  Mexico,  and 
settled  upon  its  fruitful  soil.  The  end  was  in  sight ! 

A  Terrible  Visitation 

The  wrath  of  the  gods  increased  instead  of  diminish- 
ing, and  in  order  to  appease  them  a  great  convention 
of  the  wise  men  of  the  realm  met  at  Teotihuacan,  the 
sacred  city  of  tfce  Toltecs.  But  during  their  delibera- 
tions a  giant  of  immense  proportions  rushed  into  their 
midst,  and,  seizing  upon  them  by  scores  with  his  bony 
hands,  hurled  them  to  the  ground,  dashing  their  brains 
out.  In  this  manner  he  slew  great  numbers,  and 
when  the  panic-stricken  folk  imagined  themselves 
delivered  from  him  he  returned  in  a  different  guise  and 
slew  many  more.  Again  the  grisly  monster  appeared, 
this  time  taking  the  form  of  a  beautiful  child.  The 
people,  fascinated  by  its  loveliness,  ran  to  observe 
it  more  closely,  only  to  discover  that  its  head  was 
a  mass  of  corruption,  the  stench  from  which  was  so 
18 


THE  CHICHIMEC  EXODUS 

fatal  that  many  were  killed  outright.  The  fiend  who 
had  thus  plagued  the  Toltecs  at  length  deigned  to  inform 
them  that  the  gods  would  listen  no  longer  to  their 
prayers,  but  had  fully  resolved  to  destroy  them  root 
and  branch,  and  he  further  counselled  them  to  seek 
safety  in  flight. 

Fall  of  the  Toltec  State 

By  this  time  the  principal  families  of  Tollan  had 
deserted  the  country,  taking  refuge  in  neighbouring 
states.  Once  more  Huehuetzin  menaced  Tollan,  and 
by  dint  of  almost  superhuman  efforts  old  King  Huemac, 
who  had  left  his  retirement,  raised  a  force  sufficient  to 
face  the  enemy.  Acxitl's  mother  enlisted  the  services 
of  the  women  ot  the  city,  and  formed  them  into  a 
regiment  of  Amazons.  At  the  head  of  all  was  /-.xitl, 
who  divided  his  forces,  despatching  one  portion  to  the 
front  under  his  commander-in-chief,  and  forming  the 
other  into  a  reserve  under  his  own  leadership.  During 
three  years  the  king  defended  Tollan  against  the 
combined  forces  of  the  rebels  and  the  semi-savage 
Chichimecs.  At  length  the  Toltecs,  almost  decimated, 
fled  after  a  final  desperate  battle  into  the  marshes  of 
Lake  Tezcuco  and  the  fastnesses  of  the  mountains. 
Their  other  cities  were  given  over  to  destruction,  and 
the  Toltec  empire  was  at  an  end. 

The  Chichimec  Exodus 

Meanwhile  the  rude  Chichimecs  of  the  north,  who 
had  for  many  years  carried  on  a  constant  warfare  with 
the  Toltecs,  were  surprised  that  their  enemies  sought 
their  borders  no  more,  a  practice  which  they  had 
engaged  in  principally  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
captives  for  sacrifice.  In  order  to  discover  the  reason 
for  this  suspicious  quiet  they  sent  out  spies  into  Toltec 

19 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

territory,  who  returned  with  the  amazing  news  that  the 
Toltec  domain  for  a  distance  of  six  hundred  miles  from 
the  Chichimec  frontier  was  a  desert,  the  towns  ruined 
and  empty  and  their  inhabitants  scattered.  Xolotl,  the 
Chichimec  king,  summoned  his  chieftains  to  his  capital, 
and,  acquainting  them  with  what  the  spies  had  said, 
proposed  an  expedition  for  the  purpose  of  annexing 
the  abandoned  land.  No  less  than  3,202,000  people 
composed  this  migration,  and  only  1,600,000  remained 
in  the  Chichimec  territory. 

The  Chichimecs  occupied  most  of  the  ruined  cities, 
many  of  which  they  rebuilt.  Those  Toltecs  who 
remained  became  peaceful  subjects,  and  through  their 
knowledge  of  commerce  and  handicrafts  amassed  con- 
siderable wealth.  A  tribute  was,  however,  demanded 
fron  icm,  which  was  peremptorily  refused  by  Nauhyotl, 
the  Toltec  ruler  of  Colhuacan  ;  but  he  was  defeated 
and  slain,  and  the  Chichimec  rule  was  at  last  supreme. 

The  Disappearance  of  the  Toltecs 

The  transmitters  of  this  legendary  account  give  it  as 
their  belief,  which  is  shared  by  some  authorities  of 
standing,  that  the  Toltecs,  fleeing  from  the  civil  broils 
of  their  city  and  the  inroads  of  the  Chichimecs,  passed 
into  Central  America,  where  they  became  the  founders 
of  the  civilisation  of  that  country,  and  the  architects  of 
the  many  wonderful  cities  the  ruins  of  which  now  litter 
its  plains  and  are  encountered  in  its  forests.  But  it  is 
time  that  we  examined  the  claims  put  forward  on  behalf 
of  Toltec  civilisation  and  culture  by  the  aid  of  more 
scientific  methods. 

Did  the  Toltecs  Exist? 

Some  authorities  have  questioned  the  existence  of  the 
Toltecs,  and  have  professed  to  see  in  them  a  race  which 
«o 


DID  THE  TOLTECS  EXIST? 

had  merely  a  mythical  significance.  They  base  this 
theory  upon  the  circumstance  that  the  duration  <of  the 
reigns  of  the  several  Toltec  monarchs  is  very  frequently 
stated  to  have  lasted  for  exactly  fifty-two  years,  the 
duration  of  the  great  Mexican  cycle  of  years  which 
had  been  adopted  so  that  the  ritual  calendar  might 
coincide  with  the  solar  year.  The  circumstance  is 
certainly  suspicious,  as  is  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
names  of  the  Toltec  monarchs  are  also  those  of  the 
principal  Nahua  deities,  and  this  renders  the  whole 
dynastic  list  of  very  doubtful  value.  Dr.  Brinton 
recognised  in  the  Toltecs  those  children  of  the  sun 
who,  like  their  brethren  in  Peruvian  mythology,  were 
sent  from  heaven  to  civilise  the  human  race,  and  his 
theory  is  by  no  means  weakened  by  the  circumstance 
that  Quetzalcoatl,  a  deity  of  solar  significance,  is  alluded 
to  in  Nahua  myth  as  King  of  the  Toltecs.  Recent 
considerations  and  discoveries,  however,  have  virtually 
forced  students  of  the  subject  to  admit  the  existence  of 
the  Toltecs  as  a  race.  The  author  has  dealt  with  the 
question  at  some  length  elsewhere,1  and  is  not  of  those 
who  are  free  to  admit  the  definite  existence  of  the 
Toltecs  from  a  historical  point  of  view.  The  late  Mr. 
Payne  of  Oxford,  an  authority  entitled  to  every  respect, 
gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  "the  accounts  of  Toltec 
history  current  at  the  conquest  contain  a  nucleus  of 
substantial  truth,"  and  he  writes  convincingly:  "To 
doubt  that  there  once  existed  in  Tollan  an  advancement 
superior  to  that  which  prevailed  among  the  Nahuatlaca 
generally  at  the  conquest,  and  that  its  people  spread 
their  advancement  throughout  Anahuac,  and  into  the 
districts  eastward  and  southward,  would  be  to  reject 
a  belief  universally  entertained,  and  confirmed  rather 
than  shaken  by  the  efforts  made  in  later  times  to 

1   See  Civilisation  of  Ancient  Mexico,  chap.  ii. 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
construct  for  the  Pueblo  something  in  the  nature  of  a 
history."1 

A  Persistent  Tradition 

The  theory  of  the  present  author  concerning  Toltec 
historical  existence  is  rather  more  non-committal.  He 
admits  that  a  most  persistent  body  of  tradition  as  to 
their  existence  gained  general  credence  among  the 
Nahua,  and  that  the  date  (1055)  of  their  alleged 
dispersal  admits  of  the  approximate  exactness  and 
probability  of  this  body  of  tradition  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest.  He  also  admits  that  the  site  of  Tollan 
contains  ruins  which  are  undoubtedly  of  a  date  earlier 
than  that  of  the  architecture  of  the  Nahua  as  known 
at  the  conquest,  and  that  numerous  evidences  of  an 
older  civilisation  exist.  He  also  believes  that  the  early 
Nahua  having  within  their  racial  recollection  existed  as 
savages,  the  time  which  elapsed  between  their  barbarian 
condition  and  the  more  advanced  state  which  they 
achieved  was  too  brief  to  admit  of  evolution  from 
savagery  to  culture.  Hence  they  must  have  adopted 
an  older  civilisation,  especially  as  through  the  veneer  of 
civilisation  possessed  by  them  they  exhibited  every  sign 
of  gross  barbarism. 

A  Nameless  People 

If  this  be  true  it  would  go  to  show  that  a  people  of 
comparatively  high  culture  existed  at  a  not  very  remote 
period  on  the  Mexican  tableland.  But  what  their  name 
was  or  their  racial  affinity  the  writer  does  not  profess  to 
know.  Many  modern  American  scholars  of  note  have 
conferred  upon  them  the  name  of  "Toltecs,"  and  speak 
freely  of  the  "Toltec  period"  and  of  "Toltec  art." 
It  may  appear  pedantic  to  refuse  to  recognise  that  the 
1  Payne,  Hist.  Nfu>  World,  vol.  ii.  p.  430. 

21 


OTHER  ABORIGINAL  PEOPLES 
cultured  people  who  dwelt  in  Mexico  in  pre-Nahua 
times  were  "the  Toltecs."  But  in  the  face  of  the 
absence  of  genuine  and  authoritative  native  written 
records  dealing  with  the  question,  the  author  finds  him- 
self compelled  to  remain  unconvinced  as  to  the  exact 
designation  of  the  mysterious  older  race  which  preceded 
the  Nahua.  There  are  not  wanting  authorities  who  appear 
to  regard  the  pictorial  chronicles. of  the  Nahua  as  quite 
as  worthy  of  credence  as  written  records,  but  it  must  be 
clear  that  tradition  or  even  history  set  down  in  pictorial 
form  can  never  possess  that  degree  of  definiteness  con- 
tained in  a  written  account. 

Toltec  Art 

As  has  been  stated  above,  the  Toltecs  of  tradition 
were  chiefly  remarkable  for  their  intense  love  of  art  and 
their  productions  in  its  various  branches.  Ixtlilxochitl 
says  that  they  worked  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  and 
lead,  and  as  masons  employed  flint,  porphyry,  basalt, 
and  obsidian.  In  the  manufacture  of  jewellery  and 
objets  d'art  they  excelled,  and  the  pottery  of  Cholula, 
of  which  specimens  are  frequently  recovered,  was  of  a 
high  standard. 

Other  Aboriginal  Peoples 

Mexico  contained  other  aboriginal  races  besides  the 
Toltecs.  Of  these  many  and  diverse  peoples  the  most 
remarkable  were  the  Otomi,  who  still  occupy  Guanajuato 
and  Queretaro,  and  who,  before  the  coming  of  the 
Nahua,  probably  spread  over  the  entire  valley  of  Mexico. 
In  the  south  we  find  the  Huasteca,  a  people  speaking 
the  same  language  as  the  Maya  of  Central  America,  and 
on  the  Mexican  Gulf  the  Totonacs  and  Chontals.  On 
the  Pacific  side  of  the  country  the  Mixteca  and  Zapoteca 
were  responsible  for  a  flourishing  civilisation  which 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

exhibited  many  original  characteristics,  and  which  in 
some  degree  was  a  link  between  the  cultures  of  Mexico 
and  Central  America.  Traces  of  a  still  older  population 
than  any  of  these  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  more 
remote  parts  of  Mexico,  and  the  Mixe,  Zaque, 
Kuicatec,  and  Popolcan  are  probably  the  remnants  of 
prehistoric  races  of  vast  antiquity. 

The  Cliff-dwellers 

It  is  probable  that  a  race  known  as  "the  Cliff- 
dwellers,"  occupying  the  plateau  country  of  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  Colorado,  and  Utah,  and  even  extending 
in  its  ramifications  to  Mexico  itself,  was  related  ethno- 
logically  to  the  Nahua.  The  present-day  Pueblo  Indians 
dwelling  to  the  north  of  Mexico  most  probably  possess  a 
leaven  of  Nahua  blood.  Ere  the  tribes  who  communi- 
cated this  leaven  to  the  whole  had  intermingled  with  others 
of  various  origin,  it  would  appear  that  they  occupied 
with  others  those  tracts  of  country  now  inhabited  by  the 
Pueblo  Indians,  and  in  the  natural  recesses  and  shallow 
caverns  found  in  the  faces  of  the  cliffs  erected  dwellings 
and  fortifications,  displaying  an  architectural  ability  of 
no  mean  order.  These  communities  extended  as  far 
south  as  the  Gila  river,  the  most  southern  affluent  of  the 
Colorado,  and  the  remains  they  have  left  there  appear 
to  be  of  a  later  date  architecturally  than  those  situated 
farther  north.  These  were  found  in  ruins  by  the  first 
Spanish  explorers,  and  it  is  thought  that  their  builders 
were  eventually  driven  back  to  rejoin  their  kindred 
in  the  north.  Partner  to  the  south  in  the  canons  of 
the  Piedras  Verdes  river  in  Chihuahua,  Mexico,  are 
cliff-dwellings  corresponding  in  many  respects  with 
those  of  the  Pueblo  region,  and  Dr.  Hrdlicka  has 
examined  others  so  far  south  as  the  State  of  Jalisco,  in 
Central  Mexico.  These  may  be  the  ruins  of  dwellings 


THE  NAHUA  RACE 

erected  cither  by  the  early  Nahua  or  by  some  of  the 
peoples  relatively  aboriginal  to  them,  and  may  display 
the  architectural  features  general  among  the  Nahua 
prior  to  their  adoption  of  other  alien  forms.  Or  else 
they  may  be  the  remains  of  dwellings  similar  to  those 
of  the  Tarahumare,  a  still  existing  tribe  of  Mexico, 
who,  according  to  Lumholtz,1  inhabit  similar  structures 
at  the  present  day.  It  is  clear  from  the  architectural 
development  of  the  cliff-dwellers  that  their  civilisa- 
tion developed  generally  from  south  to  north,  that 
this  race  was  cognate  to  the  early  Nahua,  and  that  it 
later  withdrew  to  the  north,  or  became  fused  with 
the  general  body  of  the  Nahua  peoples.  It  must  not 
be  understood,  however,  that  the  race  arrived  in  the 
Mexican  plateau  before  the  Nahua,  and  the  ruins  of 
Jalisco  and  other  mid-Mexican  districts  may  merely  be 
the  remains  of  comparatively  modern  cliff-dwellings, 
an  adaptation  by  mid-Mexican  communities  of  the 
"  Cliff-dweller "  architecture,  or  a  local  development 
of  it  owing  to  the  exigencies  of  early  life  in  the 
district. 

The  Nahua  Race 

The  Nahua  peoples  included  all  those  tribes  speaking 
the  Nahuatlatolli  (Nahua  tongue),  and  occupied  a  sphere 
extending  from  the  southern  borders  of  New  Mexico  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  on  the  south,  or  very 
much  within  the  limits  of  the  modern  Republic  of 
Mexico.  But  this  people  must  not  be  regarded  as  one 
race  of  homogeneous  origin.  A  very  brief  account  of 
their  racial  affinities  must  be  sufficient  here.  The 
Chichimecs  were  probably  related  to  the  Otomi,  whom 
we  have  alluded  to  as  among  the  first-comers  to  the 

1  Unknown  Mexico,  vol.  i.,   1902;  also  see  Bulletin  30,  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology,  p.  309. 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
Mexican  valley.  They  were  traditionally  supposed  to 
have  entered  it  at  a  period  subsequent  to  the  Toltec 
occupation.  Their  chief  towns  were  Tezcuco  and  Tena- 
yucan,  but  they  later  allied  themselves  with  the  Nahua 
in  a  great  confederacy,  and  adopted  the  Nahua  language. 
There  are  circumstances  which  justify  the  assumption 
that  on  their  entrance  to  the  Mexican  valley  they  con- 
sisted of  a  number  of  tribes  loosely  united,  presenting 
in  their  general  organisation  a  close  resemblance  to 
some  of  the  composite  tribes  of  modern  American 
Indians. 

The  Aculhuaque 

Next  to  them  in  point  of  order  of  tribal  arrival  were  the 
Aculhuaque,  or  Acolhuans.  The  name  means  "tall "  or 
"strong"  men,  literally  "People  of  the  Broad  Shoulder," 
or  "Pushers,"  who  made  a  way  for  themselves.  Gomara 
states  in  his  Conquista  de  Mexico  that  they  arrived  in  the 
valley  from  Acolhuacan  about  A.D.  780,  and  founded 
the  towns  of  Tollan,  Colhuacan,  and  Mexico  itself. 
The  Acolhuans  were  pure  Nahua,  and  may  well  have 
been  the  much-disputed  Toltecs,  for  the  Nahua  people 
always  insisted  on  the  feet  that  the  Toltecs  were  of  the 
same  stock  as  themselves,  and  spoke  an  older  and 
purer  form  of  the  Nahua  tongue.  From  the  Acolhuans 
sprang  the  Tlascalans,  the  inveterate  enemies  of  the 
Aztecs,  who  so  heartily  assisted  Cortes  in  his  invasion 
of  the  Aztec  capital,  Tenochtitlan,  or  Mexico. 

The  Tecpanecs 

The  Tecpanecs  were  a  confederacy  of  purely  Nahua 
tribes  dwelling  in  towns  situated  upon  the  Lake  of 
Tezcuco,  the  principal  of  which  were  Tlacopan  and 
Azcapozalco.  The  name  Tecpanec  signifies  that  each 
settlement  possessed  its  own  chief's  house,  or  tecpan. 
•6 


»•*    "     2 

w    o    j- 

III 

^1 3 
^1 


THE  AZTEC  CHARACTER 

This  tribe  were  almost  certainly  later  Nahua  immigrants 
who  arrived  in  Mexico  after  the  Acolhuans,  and  were 
great  rivals  to  the  Chichimec  branch  of  the  race. 

The  Aztecs 

The  Azteca,  or  Aztecs,  were  a  nomad  tribe  of  doubtful 
origin,  but  probably  of  Nahua  blood.  Wandering  over 
the  Mexican  plateau  for  generations,  they  at  length 
settled  in  the  marshlands  near  the  Lake  of  Tezcuco, 
hard  by  Tlacopan.  The  name  Azteci  means  "  Crane 
People,"  and  was  bestowed  upon  the  tribe  by  the 
Tecpanecs,  probably  because  of  the  fact  that,  like 
cranes,  they  dwelt  in  a  marshy  neighbourhood.  They 
founded  the  town  of  Tenochtitlan,  or  Mexico,  and 
for  a  while  paid  tribute  to  the  Tecpanecs.  But  later 
they  became  the  most  powerful  allies  of  that  people, 
whom  they  finally  surpassed  entirely  in  power  and 
splendour. 

The  Aztec  Character 

The  features  of  the  Aztecs  as  represented  in  the 
various  Mexican  paintings  are  typically  Indian,  and  argue 
a  northern  origin.  The  race  was,  and  is,  of  average 
height,  and  the  skin  is  of  a  dark  brown  hue.  The 
Mexican  is  grave,  taciturn,  and  melancholic,  with  a 
deeply  rooted  love  of  the  mysterious,  slow  to  anger, 
yet  almost  inhuman  in  the  violence  of  his  passions 
when  aroused.  He  is  usually  gifted  with  a  logical 
mind,  quickness  of  apprehension,  and  an  ability  to 
regard  the  subtle  side  of  things  with  great  nicety. 
Patient  and  imitative,  the  ancient  Mexican  excelled  in 
those  arts  which  demanded  such  qualities  in  their  exe- 
cution. He  had  a  real  affection  for  the  beautiful  in 
nature  and  a  passion  for  flowers,  but  the  Aztec  music 
lacked  gaiety,  and  the  national  amusements  were  too 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

often  of  a  gloomy  and  ferocious  character.  The  women 
arc  more  vivacious  than  the  men,  but  were  in  the  days 
before  the  conquest  very  subservient  to  the  wills  of 
their  husbands.  We  have  already  very  briefly  out- 
lined the  trend  of  Nahua  civilisation,  but  it  will  be 
advisable  to  examine  it  a  little  more  closely,  for  if 
the  myths  of  this  people  arc  to  be  understood 
some  knowledge  of  its  life  and  general  culture  is 
essential. 

Legends  of  the  Foundation  of  Mexico 

At  the  period  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Cortes 
the  city  presented  an  imposing  appearance.  Led  to  its 
neighbourhood  by  Huitzilopochtli,  a  traditional  chief, 
afterwards  deified  as  the  god  of  war,  there  are  several 
legends  which  account  for  the  choice  of  its  site  by  the 
Mexicans.  The  most  popular  of  these  relates  how  the 
nomadic  Nahua  beheld  perched  upon  a  cactus  plant  an 
eagle  of  great  size  and  majesty,  grasping  in  its  talons  a 
huge  serpent,  and  spreading  its  wings  to  catch  the  rays 
of  the  rising  sun.  The  soothsayers  or  medicine-men 
of  the  tribe,  reading  a  good  omen  in  the  spectacle, 
advised  the  leaders  of  the  people  to  settle  on  the  spot, 
and,  hearkening  to  the  voice  of  what  they  considered 
divine  authority,  they  proceeded  to  drive  piles  into  the 
marshy  ground,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
great  city  of  Mexico. 

An  elaboration  of  this  legend  tells  how  the  Aztecs 
had  about  the  year  1325  sought  refuge  upon  the 
western  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Tezcuco,  in  an  island 
among  the  marshes  on  which  they  found  a  stone  on 
which  forty  years  before  one  of  their  priests  had  sacri- 
ficed a  prince  of  the  name  of  Copal,  whom  they  had 
made  prisoner.  A  nopal  plant  had  sprung  from  an 
earth-filled  crevice  in  this  rude  altar,  and  upon  this 

•  S 


MEXICO  AT  THE  CONQUEST 

the  royal  eagle  alluded  to  in  the  former  account  had 
alighted,  grasping  the  serpent  in  his  talons.  Beholding 
in  this  a  good  omen,  and  urged  by  a  supernatural 
impulse  which  he  could  not  explain,  a  priest  of  high 
rank  dived  into  a  pool  close  at  hand,  where  he  found 
himself  face  to  face  with  Tlaloc,  the  god  of  waters. 
After  an  interview  with  the  deity  the  priest  obtained 
permission  from  him  to  found  a  city  on  the  site,  from 
the  humble  beginnings  of  which  arose  the  metropolis 
of  Mexico-Tenochtitlan. 

Mexico  at  the  Conquest 

At  the  period  of  the  conquest  the  city  of  Mexico 
had  a  circumference  of  no  less  than  twelve  miles,  or 
nearly  that  of  modern  Berlin  without  its  suburbs.  It 
contained  60,000  houses,  and  its  inhabitants  were 
computed  to  number  300,000.  Many  other  towns, 
most  of  them  nearly  half  as  large,  were  grouped 
on  the  islands  or  on  the  margin  or  Lake  Tezcuco,  so 
that  the  population  of  what  might  almost  be  called 
"  Greater  Mexico "  must  have  amounted  to  several 
millions.  The  city  was  intersected  by  four  great  road- 
ways or  avenues  built  at  right  angles  to  one  another, 
and  laid  four-square  with  the  cardinal  points.  Situated 
as  it  was  in  the  midst  of  a  lake,  it  was  traversed  by 
numerous  canals,  which  were  used  as  thoroughfares  for 
traffic.  The  four  principal  ways  described  above  were 
extended  across  the  lake  as  dykes  or  viaducts  until  they 
met  its  shores.  The  dwellings  of  the  poorer  classes 
were  chiefly  composed  of  adobes,  but  those  of  the 
nobility  were  built  of  a  red  porous  stone  quarried 
close  by.  They  were  usually  of  one  story  only,  but 
occupied  a  goodly  piece  of  ground  and  had  flat  roofs, 
many  of  which  were  covered  with  flowers.  In  general 
they  were  coated  with  a  hard,  white  cement,  which 

ag 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
gave  them  an  added  resemblance  to  the  Oriental  type 
of  building. 

Towering  high  among  these,  and  a  little  apart  from 
the  vast  squares  and  market-places,  were  the  teocallis^ 
or  temples.  These  were  in  reality  not  temples  or 
covered-in  buildings,  but  "  high  places,"  great  pyramids 
of  stone,  built  platform  on  platform,  around  which  a 
staircase  led  to  the  summit,  on  which  was  usually 
erected  a  small  shrine  containing  the  tutelar  deity  to 
whom  the  teocalli  had  been  raised.  The  great  temple  of 
Huitzilopochtli,  the  war-god,  built  by  King  Ahuizotl, 
was,  besides  being  typical  of  all,  by  far  the  greatest  of 
these  votive  piles.  The  enclosing  walls  of  the  building 
were  4800  feet  in  circumference,  and  strikingly  decorated 
by  carvings  representing  festoons  of  intertwined  reptiles, 
from  which  circumstance  they  were  called  coetpantli 
(walls  of  serpents).  A  kind  of  gate-house  on  each 
side  gave  access  to  the  enclosure.  The  teocalli^  or 
great  temple,  inside  the  court  was  in  the  shape  of  a 
parallelogram,  measuring  375  feet  by  300  feet,  and  was 
built  in  six  platforms,  growing  smaller  in  area  as  they 
descended.  The  mass  of  this  structure  was  composed 
of  a  mixture  of  rubble,  clay,  and  earth,  covered  with 
carefully  worked  stone  slabs,  cemented  together  with 
infinite  care,  and  coated  with  a  hard  gypsum.  A  flight 
of  340  steps  circled  round  the  terraces  and  led  to  the 
upper  platform,  on  which  were  raised  two  three-storied 
towers  56  feet  in  height,  in  which  stood  the  great 
statues  of  the  tutelar  deities  and  the  jasper  stones  of 
sacrifice.  These  sanctuaries,  say  the  old  Conquistadores 
who  entered  them,  had  the  appearance  and  odour  of 
shambles,  and  human  blood  was  bespattered  every- 
where. In  this  weird  chapel  of  horrors  burned  a  fire 
the  extinction  of  which  it  was  supposed  would  have 
brought  about  the  end  of  the  Nahua  power.  It  was 


The  Guardian  of  the  Sacred  Fire 
Gilbert  James 


CYCLOPEAN  REMAINS 

tended  with  a  care  as  scrupulous  as  that  with  which  the 
Roman  Vestals  guarded  their  sacred  flame.  No  less 
than  600  of  these  sacred  braziers  were  kept  alight  in 
the  city  of  Mexico  alone. 

A  Pyramid  of  Skulls 

The  principal  fane  of  Huitzilopochtli  was  surrounded 
by  upwards  of  forty  inferior  teocallis  and  shrines.  In 
the  Tzompantli  (Pyramid  of  Skulls)  were  collected 
the  grisly  relics  of  the  countless  victims  to  the  implac- 
able war -god  of  the  Aztecs,  and  in  this  horrid  struc- 
ture the  Spanish  conquerors  counted  no  less  than 
136,000  human  skulls.  In  the  court  or  teopan  which 
surrounded  the  temple  were  the  dwellings  of  thousands 
of  priests,  whose  duties  included  the  scrupulous  care  of 
the  temple  precincts,  and  whose  labours  were  minutely 
apportioned. 

Nahua  Architecture  and  Ruins 

As  we  shall  see  later,  Mexico  is  by  no  means  so  rich 
in  architectural  antiquities  as  Guatemala  or  Yucatan, 
the  reason  being  that  the  growth  of  tropical  forests  has 
to  a  great  extent  protected  ancient  stone  edifices  in  the 
latter  countries  from  destruction.  The  ruins  discovered 
in  the  northern  regions  of  the  republic  are  of  a  ruder 
type  than  those  which  approach  more  nearly  to  the 
sphere  of  Maya  influence,  as,  for  example,  those  of 
Mitla,  built  by  the  Zapotecs,  which  exhibit  such  un- 
mistakable signs  of  Maya  influence  that  we  prefer  to 
describe  them  when  dealing  with  the  antiquities  of  that 
people. 

Cyclopean  Remains 

In  the  mountains  of  Chihuahua,  one  of  the  most 
northerly  provinces,  is  a  celebrated  group  called  the 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
Casas  Grandes  (Large  Houses),  the  walls  of  which  are 
still  about  30  feet  in  height.  These  approximate  in 
general  appearance  to  the  buildings  of  more  modern 
tribes  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  may  be  re- 
ferred to  such  peoples  rather  than  to  the  Nahua.  At 
Quemada,  in  Zacatecas,  massive  ruins  of  Cyclopean 
appearance  have  been  discovered.  These  consist  of 
extensive  terraces  and  broad  stone  causeways,  tcocallis 
which  have  weathered  many  centuries,  and  gigantic 
pillars,  1 8  feet  in  height  and  17  feet  in  circumference. 
Walls  12  feet  in  thickness  rise  above  the  heaps  of 
rubbish  which  litter  the  ground.  These  remains 
exhibit  little  connection  with  Nahua  architecture  to 
the  north  or  south  of  them.  They  are  more  massive 
than  either,  and  must  have  been  constructed  by  some 
race  which  had  made  considerable  strides  in  the  art  of 
building. 

Tcotihuacan 

In  the  district  of  the  Totonacs,  to  the  north  of  Vera 
Cruz,  we  find  many  architectural  remains  of  a  highly 
interesting  character.  Here  the  teocalli  or  pyramidal 
type  of  building  is  occasionally  crowned  by  a  covered- 
in  temple  with  the  massive  roof  characteristic  of  Maya 
architecture.  The  most  striking  examples  found  in 
this  region  are  the  remains  of  Teotihuacan  and  Xochi- 
calco.  The  former  was  the  religious  Mecca  of  the 
Nahua  races,  and  in  its  proximity  are  still  to  be  seen 
the  teocallis  of  the  sun  and  moon,  surrounded  by  ex- 
tensive burying-grounds  where  the  devout  of  Anahuac 
were  laid  in  the  sure  hope  that  if  interred  they  would 
find  entrance  into  the  paradise  of  the  sun.  The  teocalli 
of  the  moon  has  a  base  covering  426  feet  and  a  height 
of  137  feet.  That  of  the  sun  is  of  greater  dimensions, 
with  a  base  of  735  feet  and  a  height  of  203  feet.  These 
3* 


Pyramid  of  the  Moon,  San  Juan  Teotihuacan 

Photo  C.  B.  Waite,  Mexico 


Pyramid  of  the  Sun,  San  Juan  Teotihuacan 

Photo  C.  B.  Waite,  Mexico 


• 


THE  HILL  OF  FLOWERS 

pyramids  were  divided  into  four  stories,  three  of  which 
remain.  Or  the  summit  of  that  of  the  sun  stood  a  temple 
containing  a  great  image  of  that  luminary  carved  from 
a  rough  block  of  stone.  In  the  breast  was  inlaid  a  star 
of  the  purest  gold,  seized  afterwards  as  loot  by  the  in- 
satiable followers  of  Cortes.  From  the  teocalli  of  the 
moon  a  path  runs  to  where  a  little  rivulet  flanks  the 
"  Citadel."  This  path  is  known  as  "The  Path  of  the 
Dead,"  from  the  circumstance  that  it  is  surrounded 
by  some  nine  square  miles  of  tombs  and  tumuli,  and, 
indeed,  forms  a  road  through  the  great  cemetery. 
The  Citadel,  thinks  Charnay,  was  a  vast  tennis  or 
tlachtli  court,  where  thousands  flocked  to  gaze  at  the 
national  sport  of  the  Nahua  with  a  zest  equal  to  that 
of  the  modern  devotees  of  football.  Teotihuacan  was 
a  flourishing  centre  contemporary  with  Tollan.  It  was 
destroyed,  but  was  rebuilt  by  the  Chichimec  king 
Xolotl,  and  preserved  thenceforth  its  traditional  sway 
as  the  focus  of  the  Nahua  national  religion.  Charnay 
identifies  the  architectural  types  discovered  there  with 
those  of  Tollan.  The  result  of  his  labours  in  the 
vicinity  included  the  unearthing  of  richly  decorated 
pottery,  vases,  masks,  and  terra-cotta  figures.  He  also 
excavated  several  large  houses  or  palaces,  some  with 
chambers  more  than  730  feet  in  circumference,  with 
walls  over  7-^  feet  thick,  into  which  were  built  rings 
and  slabs  to  support  torches  and  candles.  The  floors 
were  tessellated  in  various  rich  designs,  "  like  an 
Aubusson  carpet."  Charnay  concluded  that  the  monu- 
ments of  Teotihuacan  were  partly  standing  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest. 

The  Hill  of  Flowers 

Near  Tezcuco  is  Xochicalco  (The  Hill  of  Flowers), 
a  teocalli   the    sculpture   of  which    is    both   beautiful 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
and  luxuriant  in  design.  The  porphyry  quarries  from 
which  the  great  blocks,  12  feet  in  length,  were  cut  lie 
many  miles  away.  As  late  as  1755  tne  structure 
towered  to  a  height  of  five  stories,  but  the  vandal  has 
done  his  work  only  too  well,  and  a  few  fragmentary 
carvings  of  exquisite  design  are  all  that  to-day  remain 
of  one  of  Mexico's  most  magnificent  pyramids. 

Tollan 

We  have  already  indicated  that  on  the  site  of  the 
"  Toltec "  city  of  Tollan  ruins  have  been  discovered 
which  prove  that  it  was  the  centre  of  a  civilisation  of 
a  type  distinctly  advanced.  Charnay  unearthed  there 
gigantic  fragments  of  caryatides,  each  some  7  feet  high. 
He  also  found  columns  of  two  pieces,  which  were  fitted 
together  by  means  of  mortise  and  tenon,  bas-reliefs  of 
archaic  figures  of  undoubted  Nahua  type,  and  many 
fragments  of  great  antiquity.  On  the  hill  of  Pal  pan, 
above  Tollan,  he  found  the  ground-plans  of  several 
houses  with  numerous  apartments,  frescoed,  columned, 
and  having  benches  and  cisterns  recalling  the  implu- 
vium  of  a  Roman  villa.  Water-pipes  were  also  actually 
unearthed,  and  a  wealth  of  pottery,  many  pieces  of 
which  were  like  old  Japanese  china.  The  ground-plan 
or  foundations  of  the  houses  unearthed  at  Palpan 
showed  that  they  had  been  designed  by  practical 
architects,  and  had  not  been  built  in  any  merely  hap- 
hazard fashion.  The  cement  which  covered  the  walls 
and  floors  was  of  excellent  quality,  and  recalled  that 
discovered  in  ancient  Italian  excavations.  The  roofs 
had  been  of  wood,  supported  by  pillars. 

Picture-Writing 

The  Aztecs,  and  indeed  the  entire  Nahua  race, 
employed  a  system  of  writing  of  the  type  scientifically 
34- 


o 
o 

•a 

0 

ll 

X     *- 
*o     • 


INTERPRETATION  OF  THE  HIEROGLYPHS 
described  as  "  pictographic,"  in  which  events,  persons, 
and  ideas  were  recorded  by  means  of  drawings  and 
coloured  sketches.  These  were  executed  on  paper 
made  from  the  agave  plant,  or  were  painted  on  the 
skins  of  animals.  By  these  means  not  only  history 
and  the-  principles  of  the  Nahua  mythology  were 
communicated  from  generation  to  generation,  but  the 
transactions  of  daily  life,  the  accountings  of  merchants, 
and  the  purchase  and  ownership  of  land  were  placed 
on  record.  That  a  phonetic  system  was  rapidly  being 
approached  is  manifest  from  the  method  by  which  the 
Nahua  scribes  depicted  the  names  of  individuals  or 
cities.  These  were  represented  by  means  of  several 
objects,  the  names  of  which  resembled  that  of  the 
person  for  which  they  stood.  The  name  of  King 
Ixcoatl,  for  example,  is  represented  by  the  drawing  of 
a  serpent  (coat/}  pierced  by  flint  knives  (*z///),  and  that 
of  Motequauhzoma  (Montezuma)  by  a  mouse-trap 
(montli),  an  eagle  (quauht/t),  a  lancet  (zo),  and  a  hand 
(maitl}.  The  phonetic  values  employed  by  the  scribes 
varied  exceedingly,  so  that  at  times  an  entire  syllable 
would  be  expressed  by  the  painting  of  an  object  the 
name  of  which  commenced  with  it.  At  other  times 
only  a  letter  would  be  represented  by  the  same  drawing. 
But  the  general  intention  of  the  scribes  was  undoubtedly 
more  ideographic  than  phonetic  ;  that  is,  they  desired 
to  convey  their  thoughts  more  by  sketch  than  by  sound. 

Interpretation  of  the  Hieroglyphs 

These  pinturas,  as  the  Spanish  conquerors  desig- 
nated them,  offer  no  very  great  difficulty  in  their 
elucidation  to  modern  experts,  at  least  so  far  as  the 
general  trend  of  their  contents  is  concerned.  In  this 
they  are  unlike  the  manuscripts  of  the  Maya  of  Central 
America  with  which  we  shall  make  acquaintance  further 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

in.  Their  interpretation  was  largely  traditional,  and 
was  learned  by  rote,  being  passed  on  by  one  generation 
of  amamatini  (readers)  to  another,  and  was  by  no 
means  capable  of  elucidation  by  all  and  sundry. 

Native  Manuscripts 

The  pinturas  or  native  manuscripts  which  remain 
to  us  are  but  few  in  number.  Priestly  fanaticism, 
which  ordained  their  wholesale  destruction,  and  the 
still  more  potent  passage  of  time  have  so  reduced 
them  that  each  separate  example  is  known  to  biblio- 
philes and  Americanists  the  world  over.  In  such  as 
still  exist  we  can  observe  great  fullness  of  detail,  repre- 
senting for  the  most  part  festivals,  sacrifices,  tributes, 
and  natural  phenomena,  such  as  eclipses  and  floods,  and 
the  death  and  accession  of  monarchs.  These  events, 
and  the  supernatural  beings  who  were  supposed  to 
control  them,  were  depicted  in  brilliant  colours,  executed 
by  means  of  a  brush  of  feathers. 

The  Interpretative  Codices 

Luckily  for  future  students  of  Mexican  history,  the 
blind  zeal  which  destroyed  the  majority  of  the  Mexican 
manuscripts  was  frustrated  by  the  enlightenment  cf 
certain  European  scholars,  who  regarded  the  wholesale 
destruction  of  the  native  records  as  little  short  of  a 
calamity,  and  who  took  steps  to  seek  out  the  few 
remaining  native  artists,  from  whom  they  procured 
copies  of  the  more  important  paintings,  the  details  of 
which  were,  of  course,  quite  familiar  to  them.  To 
those  were  added  interpretations  taken  down  from  the 
lips  of  the  native  scribes  themselves,  so  that  no  doubt 
might  remain  regarding  the  contents  of  the  manuscripts. 
These  are  known  as  the  "  Interpretative  Codices,"  and 
are  of  considerable  assistance  to  the  student  of  Mexican. 


THE  MEXICAN  BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD 

history  and  customs.  Three  only  are  in  existence. 
The  Oxford  Codex,  treasured  in  the  Bodleian  Library, 
is  of  a  historical  nature,  and  contains  a  full  list  of  the 
lesser  cities  which  were  subservient  to  Mexico  in  its 
palmy  days.  The  Paris  or  Tellerio-Remensis  Codex, 
so  called  from  having  once  been  the  property  of 
Le  Tellier,  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  embodies  many 
facts  concerning  the  early  settlement  of  the  various 
Nahua  city-states.  The  Vatican  MSS.  deal  chiefly 
with  mythology  and  the  intricacies  of  the  Mexican 
calendar  system.  Such  Mexican  paintings  as  were 
unassisted  by  an  interpretation  are  naturally  of  less 
value  to  present-day  students  of  the  lore  of  the  Nahua. 
They  are  principally  concerned  with  calendric  matter, 
ritualistic  data,  and  astrological  computations  or  horo- 
scopes. 

The  Mexican  "  Book  of  the  Dead H 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  manu- 
script in  the  Vatican  collection  is  one  the  last  pages  of 
which  represent  the  journey  of  the  soul  after  death 
through  the  gloomy  dangers  of  the  Other-world.  This 
has  been  called  the  Mexican  "Book  of  the  Dead." 
The  corpse  is  depicted  dressed  for  burial,  the  soul  escap- 
ing from  its  earthly  tenement  byway  of  the  mouth.  The 
spirit  is  ushered  into  the  presence  of  Tezcatlipoca,  the 
Jupiter  of  the  Aztec  pantheon,  by  an  attendant  dressed 
in  an  ocelot  skin,  and  stands  naked  with  a  wooden  yoke 
round  the  neck  before  the  deity,  to  receive  sentence. 
The  dead  person  is  given  over  to  the  tests  which  pre- 
cede entrance  to  the  abode  of  the  dead,  the  realm  of 
Mictlan,  and  so  that  he  may  not  have  to  meet  the 
perils  of  the  journey  in  a  defenceless  condition  a  sheaf 
of  javelins  is  bestowed  upon  him.  He  first  passes 
between  two  lofty  peaks,  which  may  fall  and  crush  him 

37 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
if  he  cannot  skilfully  escape  them.  A  terrible  serpent 
then  intercepts  his  path,  and,  if  he  succeeds  in  defeating 
this  monster,  the  fierce  alligator  Xochitonal  awaits  him. 
Eight  deserts  and  a  corresponding  number  of  mountains 
have  then  to  be  negotiated  by  the  hapless  spirit,  and  a 
whirlwind  sharp  as  a  sword,  which  cuts  even  through 
solid  rocks,  must  be  withstood.  Accompanied  by  the 
shade  of  his  favourite  dog,  the  harassed  ghost  at  length 
encounters  the  fierce  Izpuzteque,  a  demon  with  the 
backward-bent  legs  of  a  cock,  the  evil  Nextepehua,  the 
fiend  who  scatters  clouds  of  ashes,  and  many  another 
grisly  foe,  until  at  last  he  wins  to  the  gates  of  the 
Lord  of  Hell,  before  whom  he  does  reverence,  after 
which  he  is  free  to  greet  his  friends  who  have  gone 
before. 

The  Calendar  System 

As  has  been  said,  the  calendar  system  was  the  source 
of  all  Mexican  science,  and  regulated  the  recurrence  of 
all  religious  rites  and  festivals.  In  fact,  the  entire 
mechanism  of  Nahua  life  was  resident  in  its  provisions. 
The  type  of  time-division  and  computation  exemplified 
in  the  Nahua  calendar  was  also  found  among  the  Maya 
peoples  of  Yucatan  and  Guatemala  and  the  Zapotec 
people  of  the  boundary  between  the  Nahua  and  Maya 
races.  By  which  of  these  races  it  was  first  employed  is 
unknown.  But  the  Zapotec  calendar  exhibits  signs  or 
both  Nahua  and  Maya  influence,  and  from  this  it  has 
been  inferred  that  the  calendar  systems  of  these  races 
have  been  evolved  from  it.  It  might  with  equal 
probability  be  argued  that  both  Nahua  and  Maya  art 
were  offshoots  of  Zapotec  art,  because  the  characteristics 
of  both  are  discovered  in  it,  whereas  the  circumstance 
merely  illustrates  the  very  natural  acceptance  by  a 
border  people,  who  settled  down  to  civilisation  at  a 
3« 


The  Spirit  of  the  dead  Aztec  is  attacked  by  an  Evil  Spirit 
who  scatters  Clouds  of  Ashes 

Gilbert  James  38 


LUNAR  RECKONING 

relatively  later  date,  of  the  artistic  tenets  of  the  two 
greater  peoples  who  environed  them.  The  Nahua 
and  Maya  calendars  were  in  all  likelihood  evolved 
from  the  calendar  system  of  that  civilised  race  which 
undoubtedly  existed  on  the  Mexican  plateau  prior  to 
the  coming  of  the  later  Nahua  swarms,  and  which  in 
general  is  loosely  alluded  to  as  the  "  Toltec." 

The  Mexican  Year 

The  Mexican  year  was  a  cycle  of  365  days,  without 
any  intercalary  addition  or  other  correction.  In  course 
of  time  it  almost  lost  its  seasonal  significance  because 
of  the  omission  of  the  extra  hours  included  in  the 
solar  year,  and  furthermore  many  of  its  festivals  and 
occasions  were  altered  by  high-priests  and  rulers  to 
suit  their  convenience.  The  Mexican  nexiuhilpilitztli 
(binding  of  years)  contained  fifty-two  years,  and  ran 
in  two  separate  cycles — one  of  fifty-two  years  of  365 
days  each,  and  another  of  seventy-three  groups  of 
260  days  each.  The  first  was  of  course  the  solar  year, 
and  embraced  eighteen  periods  of  twenty  days  each, 
called  "  months  "  by  the  old  Spanish  chroniclers,  with 
five  nemontemi  (unlucky  days)  over  and  above.  These 
days  were  not  intercalated,  but  were  included  in  the  year, 
and  merely  overflowed  the  division  of  the  year  into 
periods  of  twenty  days.  The  cycle  of  seventy-three 
groups  of  260  days,  subdivided  into  groups  of  thirteen 
days,  was  called  the  "  birth-cycle." 

Lunar  Reckoning 

People  in  a  barbarous  condition  almost  invariably 
reckon  time  by  the  period  between  the  waxing  and 
waning  of  the  moon  as  distinct  from  the  entire  passage 
of  a  lunar  revolution,  and  this  period  of  twenty  days 

39 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
will  be  found  to  be  the  basis  in  the  time-reckoning  of 
the  Mexicans,  who  designated  it  cempohualli.  Each 
day  included  in  it  was  denoted  by  a  sign,  as  "  house," 
"snake,"  "wind,"  and  so  forth.  Each  cempohualli 
was  subdivided  into  four  periods  of  five  days  each, 
sometimes  alluded  to  as  "  weeks  "  by  the  early  Spanish 
writers,  and  these  were  known  by  the  sign  or  their 
middle  or  third  day.  These  day-names  ran  on  without 
reference  to  the  length  of  the  year.  The  year  itself 
was  designated  by  the  name  of  the  middle  day  of  the 
week  in  which  it  began.  Out  of  twenty  day-names  in 
the  Mexican  "  month  "  it  was  inevitable  that  the  four 
calli  (house),  tochtli  (rabbit),  acatl  (reed),  and  tecpati 
(flint)  should  always  recur  in  sequence  because  of  the 
incidence  of  these  days  in  the  Mexican  solar  year.  Four 
years  made  up  a  year  of  the  sun.  During  the  nemontemi 
(unlucky  days)  no  work  was  done,  as  they  were  regarded 
as  ominous  and  unwholesome. 

We  have  seen  that  the  civil  year  permitted  the  day- 
names  to  run  on  continuously  from  one  year  to  another. 
The  ecclesiastical  authorities,  however,  had  a  reckon, 
ing  of  their  own,  and  made  the  year  begin  always  on 
the  first  day  of  their  calendar,  no  matter  what  sign 
denominated  that  day  in  the  civil  system. 

Groups  of  Years 

As  has  been  indicated,  the  years  were  formed  into 
groups.  Thirteen  years  constituted  a  xiumalpilli 
(bundle),  and  four  of  these  a  nexiuhilpilitztli  (com- 
plete binding  of  the  years).  Each  year  had  thus  a 
double  aspect,  first  as  an  individual  period  of  time, 
and  secondly  as  a  portion  of  the  "year  of  the  sun," 
and  these  were  so  numbered  and  named  that  each 
year  in  the  series  of  fifty-two  possessed  a  different 
description. 


The  Demon  Izpuzteque 
Photo  Mansell  &  Co. 


40 


THE  BIRTH-CYCLE 

The  Dread  of  the  Last  Day 

With  the  conclusion  of  each  period  of  fifty-two  years 
a  terrible  dread  came  upon  the  Mexicans  that  the  world 
would  come  to  an  end.  A  stated  period  of  time  had 
expired,  a  period  which  was  regarded  as  fixed  by  divine 
command,  and  it  had  been  ordained  that  on  the  com- 
pletion of  one  of  those  series  of  fifty-two  years  earthly 
time  would  cease  and  the  universe  be  demolished.  For 
some  time  before  the  ceremony  of  toxilmolpilia  (the 
binding  up  of  the  years)  the  Mexicans  abandoned 
themselves  to  the  utmost  prostration,  and  the  wicked 
went  about  in  terrible  fear.  As  the  first  day  of  the 
fifty-third  year  dawned  the  people  narrowly  observed 
the  Pleiades,  for  if  they  passed  the  zenith  time  would 
proceed  and  the  world  would  be  respited.  The  gods 
were  placated  or  refreshed  by  the  slaughter  of  the 
human  victim,  on  whose  still  living  breast  a  fire  of 
wood  was  kindled  by  friction,  the  heart  and  body  being 
consumed  by  the  flames  so  lighted.  As  the  planets  of 
hope  crossed  the  zenith  loud  acclamations  resounded 
from  the  people,  and  the  domestic  hearths,  which  had 
been  left  cold  and  dead,  were  rekindled  from  the 
sacred  fire  which  had  consumed  the  sacrifice.  Mankind 
was  safe  for  another  period. 

The  Birth-Cycle 

The  birth-cycle,  as  we  have  said,  consisted  of  260 
days.  It  had  originally  been  a  lunar  cycle  of  thirteen 
days,  and  once  bore  the  names  of  thirteen  moons.  It 
formed  part  of  the  civil  calendar,  with  which,  however, 
it  had  nothing  in  common,  as  it  was  used  for  ecclesias- 
tical purposes  only.  The  lunar  names  were  abandoned 
later,  and  the  numbers  one  to  thirteen  adopted  in  their 
places. 

4* 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

4 
Language  of  the  Nahua 

The  Nahua  language  represented  a  very  low  state  of 
culture.  Speech  is  the  general  measure  of  the  standard 
of  thought  of  a  people,  and  if  we  judged  the  civilisation 
of  the  Nahua  by  theirs,  we  should  be  justified  in  con- 
cluding that  they  had  not  yet  emerged  from  barbarism. 
But  we  must  recollect  that  the  Nahua  of  the  conquest 
period  had  speedily  adopted  the  older  civilisati'on  which 
they  had  found  awaiting  them  on  their  entrance  to 
Mexico,  and  had  retained  their  own  primitive  tongue. 
The  older  and  more  cultured  people  who  had  preceded 
them  probably  spoke  a  more  polished  dialect  of  the 
same  language,  but  its  influence  had  evidently  but  little 
effect  upon  the  rude  Chichimecs  and  Aztecs.  The 
Mexican  tongue,  like  most  American  languages,  belongs 
to  the  "  incorporati ve"  type,  the  genius  of  which  is  to 
unite  all  the  related  words  in  a  sentence  into  one  con- 
glomerate term  or  word,  merging  the  separate  words  of 
which  it  is  composed  one  into  another  by  altering  their 
forms,  and  so  welding  them  together  as  to  express  the 
whole  in  one  word.  It  will  be  at  once  apparent^ that 
such  a  system  was  clumsy  in  the  extreme,  and  led  to 
the  creation  of  words  and  names  of  the  most  barbarous 
appearance  and  sound.  In  a  narrative  of  the  Spanish 
discovery  written  by  Chimalpahin,  the  native  chronicler 
of  Chalco,  born  in  1579,  we  have,  for  example,  such  a 
passage  as  the  following:  Oc  chiucnauhxihuitl  ink  onen 
qwlantimanca  Espana  camo  niman  ic  yuh  ca  omacoc  ihueliti- 
lizfli  inic  niman  ye  chiuhcnauhxiuhtica,  in  oncan  ohualla. 
This  passage  is  chosen  quite  at  random,  and  is  an 
average  specimen  of  literary  Mexican  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Its  purport  is,  freely  translated:  "For  nine 
years  he  [Columbus]  remained  in  vain  in  Spain.  Yea, 
for  nine  years  there  he  waited  for  influence."  The 
4* 


NAHUA  GOVERNMENT 

clumsy  and  cumbrous  nature  of  the  language  could 
scarcely  be  better  illustrated  tnan  by  pointing  out  that 
chiucnauhxihuitl  signifies  "  nine  years "  ;  quilantimantay 
"he  below  remained";  and  omacoc  ihuelitiliztli^  "he  has 
got  his  powerfulness."  It  must  be  recollected  that  this 
specimen  of  Mexican  was  composed  by  a  person  who 
had  had  the  benefit  of  a  Spanish  education,  and  is  cast 
in  literary  form.  What  the  spoken  Mexican  of  pre- 
conquest  times  was  like  can  be  contemplated  with  mis- 
giving in  the  grammars  of  the  old  Spanish  missionaries, 
whose  greatest  glory  is  that  they  mastered  such  a  lan- 
guage in  the  interests  of  their  faith. 

Aztec  Science 

The  science  of  the  Aztecs  was,  perhaps,  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  sides  of  their  civilisation.  As  with 
all  peoples  in  a  semi-barbarous  state,  it  consisted  chiefly 
in  astrology  and  divination.  Of  the  former  the  won- 
derful calendar  system  was  the  basis,  and  by  its  aid  the 
priests,  or  those  of  them  who  were  set  apart  for  the 
study  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  pretended  to  be  able  to 
tell  the  future  of  new-born  infants  and  the  progress  of 
the  dead  in  the  other  world.  This  they  accomplished 
by  weighing  the  influence  of  the  planets  and  other 
luminaries  one  against  another,  and  extracting  the 
net  result.  Their  art  of  divination  consisted  in  drawing 
omens  from  the  song  and  flight  of  birds,  the  appearance 
of  grains  of  seed,  feathers,  and  the  entrails  of  animals, 
by  which  means  they  confidently  predicted  both  public 
and  private  events. 

Nahua  Government 

The  limits  of  the  Aztec  Empire  may  be  defined,  if 
its  tributary  states  are  included,  as  extending  over  the 

43 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
territory  comprised  in  the  modern  states  of  Mexico, 
Southern  Vera  Cruz,  and  Guerrero.  Among  the  civi- 
lised peoples  of  this  extensive  tract  the  prevailing  form 
of  government  was  an  absolute  monarchy,  although 
several  of  the  smaller  communities  were  republics.  The 
law  of  succession,  as  with  the  Celts  of  Scotland,  pre- 
scribed that  the  eldest  surviving  brother  of  the  deceased 
monarch  should  be  elected  to  his  throne,  and,  failing 
him,  the  eldest  nephew.  But  incompetent  persons 
were  almost  invariably  ignored  by  the  elective  body, 
although  the  choice  was  limited  to  one  family.  The 
ruler  was  generally  selected  both  because  of  his  military 
prowess  and  his  ecclesiastical  and  political  knowledge. 
Indeed,  a  Mexican  monarch  was  nearly  always  a  man  of 
the  highest  culture  and  artistic  refinement,  and  the  ill- 
fated  Montezuma  was  an  example  of  the  true  type  of 
Nahua  sovereign.  The  council  of  the  monarch  was 
composed  of  the  electors  and  other  personages  of  im- 
portance in  the  realm.  It  undertook  the  government 
of  the  provinces,  the  financial  affairs  of  the  country,  and 
other  matters  of  national  import.  The  nobility  held  all 
the  highest  military,  judicial,  and  ecclesiastical  offices. 
To  each  city  and  province  judges  were  delegated  who 
exercised  criminal  and  civil  jurisdiction,  and  whose 
opinion  superseded  even  that  of  the  Crown  itself. 
Petty  cases  were  settled  by  lesser  officials,  and  a  still 
inferior  grade  of  officers  acted  as  a  species  of  police  in 
the  supervision  of  families. 

Domestic  Life 

The  domestic  life  of  the  Nahua  was  a  peculiar  admix- 
ture of  simplicity  and  display.  The  mass  of  the  people 
led  a  life  of  strenuous  labour  in  the  fields,  and  in 
the  cities  they  wrought  hard  at  many  trades,  among 
which  may  be  specified  building,  metal-working,  making 
44 


The  Aztec  Calendar  Stone 
See  page  38 

Photo  C.  B.  Waite,  Mexico 


44 


A  MYSTERIOUS  TOLTEC  BOOK 
robes  and  other  articles  of  bright  featherwork  and 
quilted  suits  of  armour,  jewellery,  and  small  wares. 
Vendors  of  flowers,  fruit,  fish,  and  vegetables  swarmed 
.n  the  markets.  The  use  of  tobacco  was  general  among 
the  men  of  all  classes.  At  banquets  the  women  attended, 
although  they  were  seated  at  separate  tables.  The  enter- 
tainments of  the  upper  class  were  marked  by  much 
magnificence,  and  the  variety  of  dishes  was  consider- 
able, including  venison,  turkey,  many  smaller  birds, 
fish,  a  profusion  of  vegetables,  and  pastry,  accompanied 
by  sauces  of  delicate  flavour.  These  were  served  in 
dishes  of  gold  and  silver.  Pulque,  a  fermented  drink 
brewed  from  the  agave,  was  the  universal  beverage. 
Cannibalism  was  indulged  in  usually  on  ceremonial 
occasions,  and  was  surrounded  by  such  refinements  of 
the  table  as  served  only  to  render  it  the  more  repulsive 
»n.  the  eyes  of  Europeans.  It'has  been  stated  that  this 
rvolting  practice  was  engaged  in  owing  solely  to 
the  tenets  of  the  Nahua  religion,  which  enjoined  the 
slaughter  of  slaves  or  captives  in  the  name  of  a  deity, 
and  their  consumption  with  the  idea  that  the  con- 
sumers attained  unity  with  that  deity  in  the  flesh.  But 
there  is  good  reason  to  suspect  that  the  Nahua,  deprived 
of  the  flesh  of  the  larger  domestic  animals,  practised 
deliberate  cannibalism.  It  would  appear  that  the  older 
race  which  preceded  them  in  the  country  were  innocent 
of  these  horrible  repasts. 

A  Mysterious  Toltec  Book 

A  piece  of  Nahua  literature,  the  disappearance  of 
which  is  surrounded  by  circumstances  of  the  deepest 
mystery,  is  the  Teo-Amoxtli  (Divine  Book),  which 
is  alleged  by  certain  chroniclers  to  have  been  the  work 
of  the  ancient  Toltecs.  Ixtlilxochitl,  a  native  Mexican 
author,  states  that  it  was  written  by  a  Tezcucan  wise 

45 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
mtn,  one  Huematzin,  about  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century,  and  that  it  described  the  pilgrimage  of  the 
Nahua  from  Asia,  their  laws,  manners,  and  customs, 
and  their  religious  tenets,  science,  and  arts.  In  1838 
the  Baron  de  Waldeck  stated  in  his  Voyage  Pit- 
torcsqut  that  he  had  it  in  his  possession,  and  the 
Abb6  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  identified  it  with  the 
Maya  Dresden  Codex  and  other  native  manuscripts. 
Bustamante  also  states  that  the  amamatini  (chroniclers) 
of  Tezcuco  had  a  copy  in  their  possession  at  the  time  of 
the  taking  of  their  city.  But  these  appear  to  be  mere 
surmises,  and  if  the  Teo-Amoxtli  ever  existed^  which 
on  the  whole  is  not  unlikely,  it  has  probably  never 
been  seen  by  a  European. 

A  Native  Historian 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  Mexican  his- 
torians is  Don  Fernando  de  Alva  Ixtlilxochitl,  a  half- 
breed  of  royal  Tezcucan  descent.  He  was  responsible 
for  two  notable  works,  entitled  Historia  Chichimeca 
(The  History  of  the  Chichimecs)  and  the  Relariones, 
a  compilation  of  historical  and  semi-historical  incidents. 
He  was  cursed,  or  blessed,  however,  by  a  strong  leaning 
toward  the  marvellous,  and  has  coloured  his  narratives 
so  highly  that  he  would  have  us  regard  the  Toltec  or 
ancient  Nahua  civilisations  as  by  far  the  most  splendid 
and  magnificent  that  ever  existed.  His  descriptions  of 
Tezcuco,  if  picturesque  in  the  extreme,  are  manifestly 
the  outpourings  of  a  romantic  and  idealistic  mind, 
which  in  its  patriotic  enthusiasm  desired  to  vindicate 
the  country  of  his  birth  from  the  stigma  of  savagery  and 
to  prove  its  equality  with  the  great  nations  of  anti- 
quity. For  this  we  have  not  the  heart  to  quarrel  with 
him.  But  we  must  be  on  our  guard  against  accepting 
any  of  his  statements  unless  we  find  strong  corro- 
46 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  NAHUA  TRIBES 
boration  of  it   in   the  pages  of  t  more  trustworthy 
and  less  biased  author. 

Nahua  Topography 

The  geography  of  Mexico  is  by  no  means  as  familiar 
to  Europeans  as  is  that  of  the  various  countries  of  our 
own  continent,  and  it  is  extremely  easy  for  the  reader 
who  is  unacquainted  with  Mexico  and  the  puzzling 
orthography  of  its  place-names  to  flounder  among  them, 
and  during  the  perusal  of  such  a  volume  as  this  to  find 
himself  in  a  hopeless  maze  of  surmise  as  to  the  exact 
locality  of  the  more  famous  centres  of  Mexican  history. 
A  few  moments'  study  of  this  paragraph  will  enlighten 
him  in  this  respect,  and  will  save  him  much  confusion 
further  on.  He  will  see  from  the  map  (p.  330)  that 
the  city  of  Mexico,  or  Tenochtitlan,  its  native  name, 
was  situated  upon  an  island  in  the  Lake  of  Tezcuco. 
This  lake  has  now  partially  dried  up,  and  the  modern 
city  of  Mexico  is  situated  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  it.  Tezcuco,  the  city  second  in  importance,  lies 
to  the  north-east  of  the  lake,  and  is  somewhat  more 
isolated,  the  other  pueblos  (towns)  clustering  round 
the  southern  or  western  snores.  To  the  north  of 
Tezcuco  is  Teotihuacan,  the  sacred  city  of  the  gods.  To 
the  south-east  of  Mexico  is  Tlaxcallan,  or  Tlascala,  the 
city  which  assisted  Cortes  against  the  Mexicans,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  which  were  the  deadliest  foes  of  the 
central  Nahua  power.  To  the  north  lie  the  sacred  city 
of  Cholula  and  Tula,  or  Tollan. 

Distribution  of  the  Nahua  Tribes 

Having  become  acquainted  with  the  relative  position 
of  the  Nahua  cities,  we  may  now  consult  for  a  moment 
the  map  which  exhibits  the  geographical  distribution 

47 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

of  the  various  Nahua  tribes,  and  which  is  self-explana- 
tory (p.  331). 

Nahua  History 

A  brief  historical  sketch  or  epitome  of  what  is  known 
of  Nahua  history  as  apart  from  mere  tradition  will 
further  assist  the  reader  in  the  comprehension  ot 
Mexican  mythology.  From  the  period  of  the  settlement 
of  the  Nahua  on  an  agricultural  basis  a  system  of  feudal 
government  had  evolved,  and  at  various  epochs  in  the 
history  of  the  country  certain  cities  or  groups  of  cities 
held  a  paramount  sway.  Subsequent  to  the  "Toltec" 
period,  which  we  have  already  described  and  discussed, 
we  find  the  Acolhuans  in  supreme  power,  and  ruling  from 
their  cities  of  Tollantzinco  and  Cholula  a  considerable 
tract  of  country.  Later  Cholula  maintained  an  alliance 
with  Tlascala  and  Huexotzinco. 

Bloodless  Battles 

The  maxim  "Other  climes,  other  manners"  is  no- 
where better  exemplified  than  by  the  curious  annual 
strife  betwixt  the  warriors  of  Mexico  and  Tlascala. 
Once  a  year  they  met  on  a  prearranged  battle-ground 
and  engaged  in  combat,  not  with  the  intention  of  killing 
one  another,  but  with  the  object  of  taking  prisoners  for 
sacrifice  on  the  altars  of  their  respective  war-gods.  The 
warrior  seized  his  opponent  and  attempted  to  bear  him 
off,  the  various  groups  pulling  and  tugging  desperately 
at  each  other  in  the  endeavour  to  seize  the  limbs  of  the 
unfortunate  who  had  been  first  struck  down,  with  the 
object  of  dragging  him  into  durance  or  effecting  his 
rescue.  Once  secured,  theTlascaltec  warrior  was  brought 
to  Mexico  in  a  cage,  and  first  placed  upon  a  stone  slab, 
to  which  one  of  his  feet  was  secured  by  a  chain  or 


A  Prisoner  fighting  for  his  Life  48 

He  was  painted  white  and  tufts  of  cotton-wool  were  put  on  his  head 
Gilbert  James 


TEZCUCO 

thong.  He  was  then  given  light  weapons,  more  like 
playthings  than  warrior's  gear,  and  confronted  by  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  Mexican  warriors.  Should  he 
succeed  in  defeating  six  of  these  formidable  antagonists, 
he  was  set  free.  But  no  sooner  was  he  wounded  than 
he  was  hurried  to  the  altar  of  sacrifice,  and  his  heart  was 
torn  out  and  offered  to  Huitzilopochtli,  the  implacable 
god  of  war. 

The  Tlascaltecs,  having  finally  secured  their  position 
by  a  defeat  of  the  Tecpanecs  of  Huexotzinco  about 
A.D.  1384,  sank  into  comparative  obscurity  save  for 
their  annual  bout  with  the  Mexicans. 

The  Lake  Cities 

The  communities  grouped  round  the  various  lakes 
in  the  valley  of  Mexico  now  command  our  attention. 
More  than  two  score  of  these  thriving  communities 
flourished  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico, 
the  most  notable  being  those  which  occupied  the 
borders  of  the  Lake  of  Tezcuco.  These  cities 
grouped  themselves  round  two  nuclei,  Azcapozalco 
and  Tezcuco,  between  whom  a  fierce  rivalry  sprang 
up,  which  finally  ended  in  the  entire  discomfiture  of 
Azcapozalco.  From  this  event  the  real  history  of 
Mexico  may  be  said  to  commence.  Those  cities  which 
had  allied  themselves  to  Tezcuco  finally  overran  the 
entire  territory  of  Mexico  from  the  Mexican  Gulf  to 
the  Pacific. 

Tezcuco 

If,  as  some  authorities  declare,  Tezcuco  was  originally 
Otomi  in  affinity,  it  was  in  later  years  the  most 
typically  Nahuan  of  all  the  lacustrine  powers.  But 
several  other  communities,  the  power  of  which  was  very 

D  49 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

nearly  as  great  as  that  of  Tezcuco,  had  assisted  that 
city  to  supremacy.  Among  these  was  Xaltocan,  a 
city-state  of  unquestionable  Otomi  origin,  situated  at 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  lake.  As  we  have  seen 
from  the  statements  of  Ixtlilxochitl,  a  Tezcucan  writer, 
his  native  city  was  in  the  forefront  of  Nahua  civilisation 
at  the  time  of  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards,  and  if  it 
was  practically  subservient  to  Mexico  (Tenochtitlan) 
at  that  period  it  was  by  no  means  its  inferior  in  the 
arts. 

The  Tecpaneca 

The  Tecpanecs,  who  dwelt  in  Tlacopan,  Coyohuacan, 
and  Huitzilopocho,  were  also  typical  Nahua.  The  name, 
as  we  have  already  explained,  indicates  that  each  settle- 
ment possessed  its  own  lecpan  (chief's  house),  and  has 
no  racial  significance.  Their  state  was  probably  founded 
about  the  twelfth  century,  although  a  chronology  of  no 
less  than  fifteen  hundred  years  was  claimed  for  it. 
This  people  composed  a  sort  of  buffer-state  betwixt  the 
Otomi  on  the  north  and  other  Nahua  on  the  south. 

The  Aztecs 

The  menace  of  these  northern  Otomi  had  become 
acute  when  the  Tecpanecs  received  reinforcements  in 
the  shape  of  the  Azteca,  or  Aztecs,  a  people  of  Nahua 
blood,  who  came,  according  to  their  own  accounts,  from 
Aztlan  (Crane  Land).  The  name  Azteca  signifies 
"Crane  People,"  and  this  has  led  to  the  assumption 
that  they  came  from  Chihuahua,  where  cranes  abound. 
Doubts  have  been  cast  upon  the  Nahua  origin  of  the 
Azteca.  But  these  are  by  no  means  well  founded,  as 
the  names  of  the  early  Aztec  chieftains  and  kings  are 
unquestionably  Nahuan.  This  people  on  their  arrival 
in  Mexico  were  in  a  very  inferior  state  of  culture,  and 


THE  AZTECS  AS  ALLIES 

were  probably  little  better  than  savages.  We  have 
already  outlined  some  of  the  legends  concerning 
the  coming  of  the  Aztecs  to  the  land  of  Anahuac, 
or  the  valley  of  Mexico,  but  their  true  origin  is 
uncertain,  and  it  is  likely  that  they  wandered  down 
from  the  north  as  other  Nahua  immigrants  did  before 
them,  and  as  the  Apache  Indians  still  do  to  this  day. 
By  their  own  showing  they  had  sojourned  at  several 
points  en  roufet  and  were  reduced  to  slavery  by  the 
chiefs  of  Colhuacan.  They  proved  so  truculent  in 
their  bondage,  however,  that  they  were  released,  and 
journeyed  to  Chapoultepec,  which  they  quitted  because 
of  their  dissensions  with  the  Xaltocanecs.  On  their 
arrival  in  the  district  inhabited  by  the  Tecpanecs  a 
tribute  was  levied  upon  them,  but  nevertheless  they 
flourished  so  exceedingly  that  the  swamp  villages  which 
the  Tecpanecs  had  permitted  them  to  raise  on  the 
borders  of  the  lake  soon  grew  into  thriving  communities, 
and  chiefs  were  provided  for  them  from  among  the 
nobility  of  the  Tecpanecs. 

The  Aztecs  as  Allies 

By  the  aid  of  the  Aztecs  the  Tecpanecs  greatly 
extended  their  territorial  possessions.  City  after  city 
was  added  to  their  empire,  and  the  allies  finally 
invaded  the  Otomi  country,  which  they  speedily 
subdued.  Those  cities  which  had  been  founded  by 
the  Acolhuans  on  the  fringes  of  Tezcuco  also  allied 
themselves  with  the  Tecpanecs  with  the  intention  of 
freeing  themselves  from  the  yoke  of  the  Chichimecs, 
whose  hand  was  heavy  upon  them.  The  Chichimecs 
or  Tezcucans  made  a  stern  resistance,  and  for  a  time 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Tecpanecs  hung  in  the  balance. 
But  eventually  they  conquered,  and  Tezcuco  was  over- 
thrown and  given  as  a  spoil  to  the  Aztecs. 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

New  Powers 

Up  to  this  time  the  Aztecs  had  paid  a  tribute  to 
Azcapozalco,  but  now,  strengthened  by  the  successes 
of  the  late  conflict,  they  withheld  it,  and  requested 
permission  to  build  an  aqueduct  from  the  shore  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  a  supply  of  water  into  their 
city.  This  was  refused  by  the  Tecpanecs,  and  a  policy 
of  isolation  was  brought  to  bear  upon  Mexico,  an 
embargo  being  placed  upon  its  goods  and  intercourse 
with  its  people  being  forbidden.  War  followed,  in 
which  the  Tecpanecs  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter. 
After  this  event,  which  may  be  placed  about  the  year 
1428,  the  Aztecs  gained  ground  rapidly,  and  their 
march  to  the  supremacy  of  the  entire  Mexican  valley 
was  almost  undisputed.  Allying  themselves  with 
Tezcuco  and  Tlacopan,  the  Mexicans  overran  many 
states  far  beyond  the  confines  of  the  valley,  and  by  the 
time  of  Montezuma  I  had  extended  their  boundaries 
almost  to  the  limits  of  the  present  republic.  The 
Mexican  merchant  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  the 
Mexican  warrior,  and  the  commercial  expansion  of  the 
Aztecs  rivalled  their  military  fame.  Clever  traders, 
they  were  merciless  in  their  exactions  of  tribute  from 
the  states  they  conquered,  manufacturing  the  raw 
material  paid  to  them  by  the  subject  cities  into  goods 
which  they  afterwards  sold  again  to  the  tribes  under 
their  sway.  Mexico  became  the  chief  market  of  the 
empire,  as  well  as  its  political  nucleus.  Such  was 
the  condition  of  affairs  when  the  Spaniards  arrived  in 
Anahuac.  Their  coming  has  been  deplored  by  certain 
historians  as  hastening  the  destruction  of  a  Western 
Eden.  But  bad  as  was  their  rule,  it  was  probably 
mild  when  compared  with  the  cruel  and  insatiable 
sway  of  the  Aztecs  over  their  unhappy  dependents. 


NEW  POWERS 

The  Spaniards  found  a  tyrannical  despotism  in  the 
conquered  provinces,  and  a  faith  the  accessories  of 
which  were  so  fiendish  that  it  cast  a  gloom  over  the 
entire  national  life.  These  they  replaced  by  a  milder 
vassalage  and  the  earnest  ministrations  of  a  more 
enlightened  priesthood. 


COMBAT  BETWEEN  MEXICAN  AND  BILIMEC 

WARRIORS 
from  tht  Aubin-Goup'il  MS. 


CHAPTER  II:  MEXICAN  MYTHOLOGY 

Nahua  Religion 

THE  religion  of  the  ancient  Mexicans  was  a  poly- 
theism or  worship  of  a  pantheon  of  deities,  the 
general  aspect  of  which  presented  similarities  to 
the  systems  of  Greece  and  Egypt.  Original  influences, 
however,  were  strong,  and  they  are  especially  discern- 
ible, in  the  institutions  of  ritualistic  cannibalism  and 
human  sacrifice.  Strange  resemblances  to  Christian 
practice  were  observed  in  the  Aztec  mythology  by  the 
Spanish  Conquistadores,  who  piously  condemned  the 
native  customs  of  baptism,  consubstantiation,  and  con- 
fession as  frauds  founded  and  perpetuated  by  diabolic 
agency. 

A  superficial  examination  of  the  Nahua  religion  might 
lead  to  the  inference  that  within  its  scope  and  system 
no  definite  theological  views  were  embraced  and  no 
ethical  principles  propounded,  and  that  the  entire 
mythology  presents  only  the  fantastic  attitude  of  the 
barbarian  mind  toward  the  eternal  verities.  Such  a  con- 
clusion would  be  both  erroneous  and  unjust  to  a 
human  intelligence  of  a  type  by  no  means  debased. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Nahua  displayed  a  theological 
advancement  greatly  superior  to  that  of  the  Greeks  or 
Romans,  and  quite  on  a  level  with  that  expressed  by 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians.  Toward  the  period  of 
the  Spanish  occupation  the  Mexican  priesthood  was 
undoubtedly  advancing  to  the  contemplation  of  the 
exaltation  of  one  god,  whose  worship  was  fust  excluding 
that  of  similar  deities,  and  if  our  data  are  too  imperfect 
to  allow  us  to  speak  very  fully  in  regard  to  this  phase 
of  religious  advancement,  we  know  at  least  that  much  of 
the  Nahua  ritual  and  many  of  the  prayers  preserved 
by  the  labours  of  the  Spanish  fathers  are  unquestionably 
54 


Priest  making  an  Incantation  over  an  Aztec  Lady  54 

Gilbert  James 


COSMOLOGY 

genuine,  and  display  the  attainment  of  a  high  religious 
level. 

Cosmology 

Aztec  theology  postulated  an  eternity  which,  however, 
was  not  without  its  epochs.  It  was  thought  to  be  broken 
up  into  a  number  of  aeons,  each  of  which  depended 
upon  the  period  of  duration  of  a  separate  "sun."  No 
agreement  is  noticeable  among  authorities  on  Mexican 
mythology  as  to  the  number  of  these  "suns,"  but  it 
would  appear  as  probable  that  the  favourite  tradition 
stipulated  for  four  "suns"  or  epochs,  each  of  which 
concluded  with  a  national  disaster — flood,  famine, 
tempest,  or  fire.  The  present  aeon,  they  feared,  might 
conclude  upon  the  completion  of  every  "sheaf"  of 
fifty-two  years,  the  "sheaf"  being  a  merely  arbitrary 
portion  of  an  aeon.  The  period  of  time  from  the  first 
creation  to  the  current  ason  was  variously  computed  as 
15,228,  2386,  or  1404  solar  years,  the  discrepancy  and 
doubt  arising  because  of  the  equivocal  nature  of  the 
numeral  signs  expressing  the  period  in  the  pin^uras^  or 
native  paintings.  As  regards  the  sequence  of  "suns" 
there  is  no  more  agreement  than  there  is  regarding  their 
number.  The  Codex  Vaticanus  states  it  to  have  been 
water,  wind,  fire,  and  famine.  Humboldt  gives  it  as 
hunger,  fire,  wind,  and  water ;  Boturini  as  water, 
famine,  wind,  and  fire;  and  Gama  as  hunger,  wind, 
fire,  and  water. 

In  all  likelihood  the  adoption  of  tour  ages  arose  from 
the  sacred  nature  of  that  number.  The  myth  doubtless 
shaped  itself  upon  the  tonalamatl  (Mexican  native 
calendar),  the  great  repository  of  the  wisdom  of  the 
Nahua  race,  which  the  priestly  class  regarded  as  its  vadt 
mecuni)  and  which  was  closely  consulted  by  it  on  every 
occasion,  civil  or  religious. 

5$ 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  Sources  of  Mexican  Mythology 

Our  knowledge  of  the  mythology  of  the  Mexicans 
is  chiefly  gained  through  the  works  of  those  Spaniards, 
lay  and  cleric,  who  entered  the  country  along  with  or 
immediately  subsequent  to  the  Spanish  Conquistadores. 
From  several  of  these  we  have  what  might  be  called 
first-hand  accounts  of  the  theogony  and  ritual  of  the 
Nahua  people.  The  most  valuable  compendium  is  that 
of  Father  Bernardino  Sahagun,  entitled  A  General 
History  of  the  Affairs  of  New  Spain,  which  was  pub- 
lished from  manuscript  only  in  the  middle  of  last 
century,  though  written  in  the  first  half  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Sahagun  arrived  in  Mexico  eight 
years  after  the  country  had  been  reduced  by  the 
Spaniards  to  a  condition  of  servitude.  He  obtained 
a  thorough  mastery  of  the  Nahuatl  tongue,  and  con- 
ceived a  warm  admiration  for  the  native  mind  and  a 
deep  interest  in  the  antiquities  of  the  conquered  people. 
His  method  of  collecting  facts  concerning  their  mytho- 
logy and  history  was  as  effective  as  it  was  ingenious. 
He  held  daily  conferences  with  reliable  Indians,  and 
placed  questions  before  them,  to  which  they  replied  by 
symbolical  paintings  detailing  the  answers  which  he 
required.  These  he  submitted  to  scholars  who  had 
been  trained  under  his  own  supervision,  and  who,  after 
consultation  among  themselves,  rendered  him  a  criticism 
in  Nahuatl  of  the  hieroglyphical  paintings  he  had  placed 
it  their  disposal.  Not  content  with  this  process,  he 
subjected  these  replies  to  the  criticism  of  a  third  body, 
after  which  the  matter  was  included  in  his  work.  But 
ecclesiastical  intolerance  was  destined  to  keep  the  work 
from  publication  for  a  couple  of  centuries.  Afraid  that 
such  a  volume  would  be  successful  in  keeping  alight 
the  fires  of  paganism  in  Mexico,  Sahagun's  brethren 
5* 


TORQUEMADA 

refused  him  the  assistance  he  required  for  its  publication. 
But  on  his  appealing  to  the  Council  of  the  Indies  in 
Spain  he  was  met  with  encouragement,  and  was  ordered 
to  translate  his  great  work  into  Spanish,  a  task  he 
undertook  when  over  eighty  years  of  age.  He  trans- 
mitted the  work  to  Spain,  and  for  three  hundred  years 
nothing  more  was  heard  of  it. 

The  Romance  of  the  Lost  "  Sahagun M 

For  generations  antiquarians  interested  in  the  lore  or 
ancient  Mexico  bemoaned  its  loss,  until  at  length  one 
Munoz,  more  indefatigable  than  the  rest,  chanced  to 
visit  the  crumbling  library  of  the  ancient  convent  of 
Tolosi,  in  Navarre.  There,  among  time-worn  manu- 
scripts and  tomes  relating  to  the  early  fathers  and  the 
intricacies  of  canon  law,  he  discovered  the  lost  Sahagun  ! 
It  was  printed  separately  by  Bustamante  at  Mexico  and 
by  Lord  Kingsborough  in  his  collection  in  1830,  and 
has  been  translated  into  French  by  M.  Jourdanet. 
Thus  the  manuscript  commenced  in  or  after  1530  was 
given  to  the  public  after  a  lapse  of  no  less  than  three 
hundred  years  1 

Torquemada 

Father  Torquemada  arrived  in  the  New  World  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  at  which  period  he 
was  still  enabled  to  take  from  the  lips  of  such  of  the 
Conquistadores  as  remained  much  curious  information 
regarding  the  circumstances  of  their  advent.  His 
Monarchia  Indiana  was  first  published  at  Seville  in 
1615,  and  in  it  he  made  much  use  of  the  manuscript  of 
Sahagun,  not  then  published.  At  the  same  time  his 
observations  upon  matters  pertaining  to  the  native 
religion  are  often  illuminating  and  exhaustive. 

In  his  Storia  Antica  del  Messico  the  Abbe  Clavigero, 

57 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

who  published  his  work  in  1780,  did  much  to  disperse 
the  clouds  of  tradition  which  hung  over  Mexican 
history  and  mythology.  The  clarity  of  his  style  and 
the  exactness  of  his  information  render  his  work 
exceedingly  useful. 

Antonio  Gama,  in  his  Description  Hisforica  y  Cronologica 
de  las  dos  Piedras,  poured  a  flood  of  light  on  Mexican  anti- 
quities. His  work  was  published  in  1832.  With  him 
may  be  said  to  have  ceased  the  line  of  Mexican  archaeo- 
logists of  the  older  school.  Others  worthy  of  being  men- 
tioned among  the  older  writers  on  Mexican  mythology 
(we  are  not  here  concerned  with  history)  are  Boturini, 
who,  in  his  Idea  de  una  Nueva  Historia  General  de  la 
America  Septentrional,  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  native  life 
and  tradition,  culled  from  first-hand  communication  with 
the  people ;  Ixtlilxochitl,  a  half-breed,  whose  menda- 
cious works,  the  Reladones  and  Historia  Chichimecay  arc 
yet  valuable  repositories  of  tradition  ;  Jos£  de  Acosta, 
whose  Historia  Natural  y  Moral  de  las  Tndias  was  pub- 
lished at  Seville  in  1580;  and  Gomara,  who,  in  his 
Historia  General  de  las  Indias  (Madrid,  1749),  rested 
upon  the  authority  of  the  Conquistadores.  Tezozomoc's 
Chronica  Mexicana,  reproduced  in  Lord  Kingsborough's 
great  work,  is  valuable  as  giving  unique  facts  regard- 
ing the  Aztec  mythology,  as  is  the  Teatro  Mexicana  of 
Vetancurt,  published  at  Mexico  in  1697-98. 

The  Worship  of  One  God 

The  ritual  of  this  dead  faith  of  another  hemisphere 
abounds  in  expressions  concerning  the  unity  of  the  deity 
approaching  very  nearly  to  many  of  those  we  ourselves 
employ  regarding  God's  attributes.  The  various  classes 
of  the  priesthood  were  in  the  habit  of  addressing  the 
several  gods  to  whom  they  ministered  as  "  omnipotent," 
"  endless."  "  invisible,"  "  the  one  god  complete  in 
58 


TEZCATLIPOCA 

perfection  and  unity,"  and  "  the  Maker  and  Moulder 
of  All."  These  appellations  they  applied  not  to  one 
supreme  being,  but  to  the  individual  deities  to  whose 
service  they  were  attached.  It  may  be  thought  that 
such  a  practice  would  be  fatal  to  the  evolution  of  a 
single  and  universal  god.  But  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  Tezcatlipoca,  the  great  god  of  the  air,  like 
the  Hebrew  Jahveh,  also  an  air-god,  was  fast  gaining 
precedence  of  all  other  deities,  when  the  coming  of  the 
white  man  put  an  end  to  his  chances  of  sovereignty. 

Tezcatlipoca 

Tezcatlipoca  (Fiery  Mirror)  was  undoubtedly  the 
Jupiter  of  the  Nahua  pantheon.  He  carried  a  mirror 
or  shield,  from  which  he  took  his  name,  and  in  which 
he  was  supposed  to  see  reflected  the  actions  and  deeds 
of  mankind.  The  evolution  of  this  god  from  the 
status  of  a  spirit  of  wind  or  air  to  that  of  the  supreme 
deity  of  the  Aztec  people  presents  many  points  of  deep 
interest  to  students  of  mythology.  Originally  the 
personification  of  the  air,  the  source  both  of  the  breath 
of  life  and  of  the  tempest,  Tezcatlipoca  possessed  all 
the  attributes  of  a  god  who  presided  over  these 
phenomena.  As  the  tribal  god  of  the  Tezcucans  who 
had  led  them  into  the  Land  of  Promise,  and  had  been 
instrumental  in  the  defeat  of  both  the  gods  and  men  of 
the  elder  race  they  dispossessed,  Tezcatlipoca  naturally 
advanced  so  speedily  in  popularity  and  public  honour 
that  it  was  little  wonder  that  within  a  comparatively 
short  space  of  time  he  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  god 
of  fate  and  fortune,  and  as  inseparably  connected  with 
the  national  destinies.  Thus,  from  being  the  peculiar 
deity  of  a  small  band  of  Nahua  immigrants,  the  prestige 
accruing  from  the  rapid  conquest  made  under  his  tute- 
lary direction  and  the  speedily  disseminated  tales  of  the 

59 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
prowess  of  those  who  worshipped  him  seemed  to  render 
him  at  once  the  most  popular  and  the  best  feared  god 
in  Anahuac,  therefore  the  one  whose  cult  quickly  over- 
shadowed  that  of  other  and  similar  gods. 

Tercatlipcca,  Overthrower  of  the  Toltecs 

We  find  Tezcatlipoca  intimately  associated  with  the 
legends  which  recount  the  overthrow  of  Tollan,  the 
capital  of  the  Toltecs.  His  chief  adversary  on  the 
Toltec  side  is  the  god-king  Quetzalcoatl,  whose  nature 
and  reign  we  will  consider  later,  but  whom  we  will 
now  merely  regard  as  the  enemy  of  Tezcatlipoca.  The 
rivalry  between  these  gods  symbolises  that  which  existed 
between  the  civilised  Toltecs  and  the  barbarian  Nahua, 
and  is  well  exemplified  in  the  following  myths. 

Myths  of  Quetzalcoatl  and  Tezcatlipoca 

In  the  days  of  Quetzalcoatl  there  was  abundance  of 
everything  necessary  for  subsistence.  The  maize  was 
plentiful,  the  calabashes  were  as  thick  as  one's  arm,  and 
cotton  grew  in  all  colours  without  having  to  be  dyed. 
A  variety  of  birds  of  rich  plumage  filled  the  air  with 
their  songs,  and  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones  were 
abundant.  In  the  reign  of  Quetzalcoatl  there  was  peace 
and  plenty  for  all  men. 

But  this  blissful  state  was  too  fortunate,  too  happy 
to  endure.  Envious  of  the  calm  enjoyment  of  the 
god  and  his  people  the  Toltecs,  three  wicked  "  necro- 
mancers "  plotted  their  downfall.  The  reference  is 
of  course  to  the  gods  of  the  invading  Nahua  tribes, 
the  deities  Huitzilopochtli,  Titlacahuan  or  Tezcatlipoca, 
and  Tlacahuepan.  These  laid  evil  enchantments  upon 
the  city  of  Tollan,  and  Tezcatlipoca  in  particular  took 
the  lead  in  these  envious  conspiracies.  Disguised  as 
an  aged  man  with  white  hair,  he  presented  himself  at 
60 


TEZCATLIPOCA  AND  THE  TOLTECS 

the  palace  of  Quetzalcoatl,  where  he  said  to  the  pages- 
in-waiting  :  "  Pray  present  me  to  your  master  the  king 
I  desire  to  speak  with  him." 

The  pages  advised  him  to  retire,  as  Quetzalcoatl  was 
indisposed  and  could  see  no  one.  He  requested  them, 
however,  to  tell  the  god  that  he  was  waiting  outside. 
They  did  so,  and  procured  his  admittance. 

On  entering  the  chamber  of  Quetzalcoatl  the  wily 
Tezcatlipoca  simulated  much  sympathy  with  the 
suffering  god-king.  "How  are  you,  my  son?"  he 
asked.  "  I  have  brought  you  a  drug  which  you  should 
drink,  and  which  will  put  an  end  to  the  course  of  your 
malady." 

"  You  are  welcome,  old  man,**  replied  Quetzalcoatl. 
"  I  have  known  for  many  days  that  you  would  come. 
I  am  exceedingly  indisposed.  The  malady  affects  my 
entire  system,  and  I  can  use  neither  my  hands  nor 
feet." 

Tezcatlipoca  assured  him  that  if  he  partook  of  the 
medicine  which  he  had  brought  him  he  would  imme- 
diately experience  a  great  improvement  in  health. 
Quetzalcoatl  drank  the  potion,  and  at  once  felt  much 
revived.  The  cunning  Tezcatlipoca  pressed  another 
and  still  another  cup  of  the  potion  upon  him,  and  as  it 
was  nothing  but  pulque,  the  wine  of  the  country,  he 
speedily  became  intoxicated,  and  was  as  wax  in  the 
hands  of  his  adversary. 

Tezcatlipoca  and  the  Toltecs 

Tezcatlipoca,  in  pursuance  of  his  policy  inimical  to 
the  Toltec  state,  took  the  form  of  an  Indian  of  the  name 
of  Toueyo  (Toveyo),  and  bent  his  steps  to  the  palace 
of  Uemac,  chief  of  the  Toltecs  in  temporal  matters. 
This  worthy  had  a  daughter  so  fair  that  she  was  desired 
in  marriage  by  many  of  the  Toltecs,  but  all  to  no 

61 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
purpose,  as  her  father  refused  her  hand  to  one  and  all. 
The  princess,  beholding  the  false  Toueyo  passing  her 
father's  palace,  fell  deeply  in  love  with  him,  and  so 
tumultuous  was  her  passion  that  she  became  seriously 
ill  because  of  her  longing  for  him.  Uemac,  hearing  of 
her  indisposition,  bent  his  steps  to  her  apartments,  and 
inquired  of  her  women  the  cause  of  her  illness.  They 
told  him  that  it  was  occasioned  by  the  sudden  passion 
which  had  seized  her  for  the  Indian  who  had  recently 
come  that  way.  Uemac  at  once  gave  orders  for  the 
arrest  of  Toueyo,  and  he  teas  haled  before  the  temporal 
chief  of  Tollan. 

"  Whence  come  you  ? "  inquired  Uemac  of  his 
prisoner,  who  was  very  scantily  attired. 

"  Lord,  I  am  a  stranger,  and  I  have  come  to  these 
parts  to  sell  green  paint,"  replied  Tezcatlipoca. 

"  Why  are  you  dressed  in  this  fashion  ?  Why  do 
you  not  wear  a  cloak  ? "  asked  the  chief. 

"My  lord,  I  follow  the  custom  of  my  country," 
replied  Tezcatlipoca. 

"You  have  inspired  a  passion  in  the  breast  of  my 
daughter,"  said  Uemac.  "  What  should  be  done  to 
you  for  thus  disgracing  me  ?  " 

"  Slay  me ;  I  care  not,"  said  the  cunning  Tezcatli- 
poca. 

"  Nay,"  replied  Uemac,  "  for  if  I  slay  you  my 
daughter  will  perish.  Go  to  her  and  say  that  she 
may  wed  you  and  be  happy." 

Now  the  marriage  of  Toueyo  to  the  daughter  of 
Uemac  aroused  much  discontent  among  the  Toltecs  ; 
and  they  murmured  among  themselves,  and  said : 
"  Wherefore  did  Uemac  give  his  daughter  to  this 
Toueyo  ? "  Uemac,  ha/ing  got  wind  of  these  murmur- 
ings,  resolved  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  Toltecs  by 
making  war  upon  the  neighbouring  state  of  Coatepec. 
62 


The  Princess  sees  a  strange  Man  before  the  Palace  62 

Gilbert  James 


TEZCATLIPOCA  AND  THE  TOLTECS 

The  Toltecs  assembled  armed  for  the  fray,  and  having 
arrived  at  the  country  of  the  men  of  Coatepec  they  placed 
Toueyo  in  ambush  with  his  body-servants,  hoping  that 
he  would  be  slain  by  their  adversaries.  But  Toueyo  and 
his  men  killed  a  large  number  of  the  enemy  and  put 
them  to  flight.  His  triumph  was  celebrated  by  Uemac 
with  much  pomp.  The  knightly  plumes  were  placed 
upon  his  head,  and  his  body  was  painted  with  red  and 
yellow — an  honour  reserved  for  those  who  distinguished 
themselves  in  battle. 

Tezcatlipoca's  next  step  was  to  announce  a  great 
feast  in  Tollan,  to  which  all  the  people  for  miles 
around  were  invited.  Great  crowds  assembled,  and 
danced  and  sang  in  the  city  to  the  sound  of  the 
drum.  Tezcatlipoca  sang  to  them  and  forced  them  to 
accompany  the  rhythm  of  his  song  with  their  feet. 
Faster  and  faster  the  people  danced,  until  the  pace 
became  so  furious  that  they  were  driven  to  madness, 
lost  their  footing,  and  tumbled  pell-mell  down  a  deep 
ravine,  where  they  were  changed  into  rocks.  Others  in 
attempting  to  cross  a  stone  bridge  precipitated  them- 
selves into  the  water  below,  and  were  changed  into 
stones. 

On  another  occasion  Tezcatlipoca  presented  himself 
as  a  valiant  warrior  named  Tequiua,  and  invited  all  the 
inhabitants  of  Tollan  and  its  environs  to  come  to  the 
flower-garden  called  Xochitla.  When  assembled  there 
he  attacked  them  with  a  hoe,  and  slew  a  great  number, 
and  others  in  panic  crushed  their  comrades  to  death. 

Tezcatlipoca  and  Tlacahuepan  on  another  occasion 
repaired  to  the  market-place  of  Tollan,  the  former  dis- 
playing upon  the  palm  of  his  hand  a  small  infant  whom 
he  caused  to  dance  and  to  cut  the  most  amusing 
capers.  This  infant  was  in  reality  Huitzilopochtli,  the 
Nahua  god  of  war.  At  this  sight  the  Toltecs  crowded 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

upon  one  another  for  the  purpose  of  getting  a  better 
view,  and  their  eagerness  resulted  in  many  being 
crushed  to  death.  So  enraged  were  the  Toltecs  at  this 
that  upon  the  advice  of  Tlacahuepan  they  slew  both 
Tezcatlipoca  and  Huitzilopochtli.  When  this  had  been 
done  the  bodies  of  the  slain  gods  gave  forth  such  a 
pernicious  effluvia  that  thousands  of  the  Toltecs  died 
of  the  pestilence.  The  god  Tlacahuepan  then  advised 
them  to  cast  out  the  bodies  lest  worse  befell  them,  but 
on  their  attempting  to  do  so  they  discovered  their 
weight  to  be  so  great  that  they  could  not  move  them. 
Hundreds  wound  cords  round  the  corpses,  but  the 
strands  broke,  and  those  who  pulled  upon  them  fell 
and  died  suddenly,  tumbling  one  upon  the  other,  and 
suffocating  those  upon  whom  they  collapsed. 

The  Departure  of  Quetzalcoatl 

The  Toltecs  were  so  tormented  by  the  enchantments 
of  Tezcatlipoca  that  it  was  soon  apparent  to  them  that 
their  fortunes  were  on  the  wane  and  that  the  end  of 
their  empire  was  at  hand.  Quetzalcoatl,  chagrined  at 
the  turn  things  had  taken,  resolved  to  quit  Tollan  and 
go  to  the  country  of  Tlapallan,  whence  he  had  come  on 
his  civilising  mission  to  Mexico.  He  burned  all  the 
houses  which  he  had  built,  and  buried  his  treasure 
of  gold  and  precious  stones  in  the  deep  valleys  between 
the  mountains.  He  changed  the  cacao-trees  into  mez- 
quites,  and  he  ordered  all  the  birds  of  rich  plumage 
and  song  to  quit  the  valley  of  Anahuac  and  to  follow 
him  to  a  distance  of  more  than  a  hundred  leagues.  On 
the  road  from  Tollan  he  discovered  a  great  tree  at  a  point 
called  Quauhtitlan.  There  he  rested,  and  requested  his 
pages  to  hand  him  a  mirror.  Regarding  himself  in  the 
polished  surface,  he  exclaimed,  "  I  am  old,"  and  from 
that  circumstance  the  spot  was  named  Huehuequauhtit- 
64 


THE  DEPARTURE  OF  QUETZALCOATL 

Ian  (Old  Quauhtitlan).  Proceeding  on  his  way  accom- 
panied by  musicians  who  played  the  flute,  he  walked 
until  fatigue  arrested  his  steps,  and  he  seated  himself 
upon  a  stone,  on  which  he  left  the  imprint  of  his  hands. 
This  place  is  called  Temacpalco  (The  Impress  of  the 
Hands).  At  Coaapan  he  was  met  by  the  Nahua  gods, 
who  were  inimical  to  him  and  to  the  Toltecs. 

"  Where  do  you  go  ? "  they  asked  him.  "  Why  do 
you  leave  your  capital  ? " 

"I  go  to  Tlapallan,"  replied  Quetzalcoatl,  "whence 
I  came." 

"  For  what  reason  ? "  persisted  the  enchanters. 

"  My  father  the  Sun  has  called  me  thence,"  replied 
Quetzalcoatl. 

"Go,  then,  happily,"  they  said,  "but  leave  us  the 
secret  of  your  art,  the  secret  of  founding  in  silver,  of 
working  in  precious  stones  and  woods,  of  painting,  and 
of  feather-working,  and  other  matters." 

But  Quetzalcoatl  refused,  and  cast  all  his  treasures 
into  the  fountain  of  Cozcaapa  (Water  of  Precious 
Stones).  At  Cochtan  he  was  met  by  another  enchanter, 
who  asked  him  whither  he  was  bound,  and  on  learning 
his  destination  proffered  him  a  draught  of  wine.  On 
tasting  the  vintage  Quetzalcoatl  was  overcome  with 
sleep.  Continuing  his  journey  in  the  morning,  the 
god  passed  between  a  volcano  and  the  Sierra  Nevada 
(Mountain  of  Snow),  where  all  the  pages  who  accom- 
panied him  died  of  cold.  He  regretted  this  misfortune 
exceedingly,  and  wept,  lamenting  their  fate  with  most 
bitter  tears  and  mournful  songs.  On  reaching  the 
summit  of  Mount  Poyauhtecatl  he  slid  to  the  base. 
Arriving  at  the  sea-shore,  he  embarked  upon  a  raft 
of  serpents,  and  was  wafted  away  toward  the  land  of 
Tlapallan. 

It  is  obvious  that  these  legends  bear  some  resemblance 

6 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

to  those  of  Ixtlilxochitl  which  recount  the  fall  of  tV, 
Toitecs.  They  are  taken  from  Sahagun's  work,  Historia 
General  de  Nueva  Espana,  and  are  included  as  well 
for  the  sake  of  comparison  as  for  their  own  intrinsic 
value. 

Tezcatlipoca  as  Doomster 

Tezcatlipoca  was  much  more  than  a  mere  personifica- 
tion of  wind,  and  if  he  was  regarded  as  a  life-giver  he 
had  also  the  power  of  destroying  existence.  In  fact  on 
occasion  he  appears  as  an  inexorable  death-dealer,  and 
as  such  was  styled  Nezahualpilli  (The  Hungry  Chief) 
and  Yaotzin  (The  Enemy).  Perhaps  one  of  the  names 
by  which  he  was  best  known  was  Telpochtli  (The 
Youthful  Warrior),  from  the  fact  that  his  reserve  of 
strength,  his  vital  force,  never  diminished,  and  that  his 
youthful  and  boisterous  vigour  was  apparent  in  the 
tempest. 

Tezcatlipoca  was  usually  depicted  as  holding  in  his 
right  hand  a  dart  placed  in  an  atlatl  (spear-thrower), 
and  his  mirror-shield  with  four  spare  darts  in  his  left. 
This  shield  is  the  symbol  of  his  power  as  judge  of 
mankind  and  upholder  of  human  justice. 

The  Aztecs  pictured  Tezcatlipoca  as  rioting  along 
the  highways  in  search  of  persons  on  whom  to  wreak 
his  vengeance,  as  the  wind  of  night  rushes  along  the 
deserted  roads  with  more  seeming  violence  than  it  does 
by  day.  Indeed  one  of  his  names,  Yoalli  Ehecatl, 
signifies  "Night  Wind."  Benches  of  stone,  shaped 
like  those  made  for  the  dignitaries  of  the  Mexican 
towns,  were  distributed  along  the  highways  for  his 
especial  use,  that  on  these  he  might  rest  after  his 
boisterous  journeyings.  These  seats  were  concealed  by 
green  boughs,  beneath  which  the  god  was  supposed  to 
lurk  in  wait  for  his  victims.  But  if  one  of  the  'persons 
66 


Tezcatlipoca,  Lord  of  the  Night  Winds 
Gilbert  James 


66 


TEZCATLIPOCA  AS  DOOMSTER 

he  seized  overcame  him  in  the  struggle  he  might  ask 
whatever  boon  he  desired,  secure  in  the  promise  of  the 
deity  that  it  should  be  granted  forthwith. 

It  was  supposed  that  Tezcatlipoca  had  guided  the 
Nahua,  and  especially  the  people  of  Tezcuco,  from  a 
more  northerly  clime  to  the  valley  of  Mexico.  But  he 
was  not  a  mere  local  deity  of  Tezcuco,  his  worship  being 
widely  celebrated  throughout  the  country.  His  exalted 
position  in  the  Mexican  pantheon  seems  to  have  won 
for  him  especial  reverence  as  a  god  of  fate  and  fortune. 
The  place  he  took  as  the  head  of  the  Nahua  pantheon 
brought  him  many  attributes  which  were  quite  foreign 
to  his  original  character.  Fear  and  a  desire  to  exalt 
their  tutelar  deity  will  impel  the  devotees  of  a 
powerful  god  to  credit  him  with  any  or  every  quality, 
so  that  there  is  nothing  remarkable  in  the  spectacle 
of  the  heaping  of  every  possible  attribute,  human 
or  divine,  upon  Tezcatlipoca  when  we  recall  the 
supreme  position  he  occupied  in  Mexican  mythology. 
His  priestly  caste  far  surpassed  in  power  and  in  the 
breadth  and  activity  of  its  propaganda  the  priesthoods 
of  the  other  Mexican  deities.  To  it  is  credited  the 
invention  of  many  of  the  usages  of  civilisation,  and  that 
it  all  but  succeeded  in  making  his  worship  universal 
is  pretty  clear,  as  has  been  shown.  The  other  gods 
were  worshipped  for  some  special  purpose,  but  the 
worship  of  Tezcatlipoca  was  regarded  as  compulsory, 
and  to  some  extent  as  a  safeguard  against  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  universe,  a  calamity  the  Nahua  had  been  led  to 
believe  might  occur  through  his  agency.  He  was  known 
as  Moneneque  (The  Claimer  of  Prayer),  and  in  some 
of  the  representations  of  him  an  ear  of  gold  was  shown 
suspended  from  his  hair,  toward  which  small  tongues 
of  gold  strained  upward  in  appeal  of  prayer.  In  times 
of  national  danger,  plague,  or  famine  universal  prayer 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
was  made  to  Tezcatlipoou  The  heads  of  the  com- 
munity repaired  to  his  teocalli  (temple)  accompanied 
by  the  people  en  masse,  and  all  prayed  earnestly  together 
for  his  speedy  intervention.  The  prayers  to  Tezcatli- 
poca  still  extant  prove  that  the  ancient  Mexicans  fully 
believed  that  he  possessed  the  power  of  life  and  death, 
and  many  of  them  arc  couched  in  the  most  piteous 
terms. 

The  Teotleco  Festival 

The  supreme  position  occupied  by  Tezcatlipoca  in 
the  Mexican  religion  is  well  exemplified  in  the  festival 
of  the  Teotleco  (Coming  of  the  Gods),  which  is 
fully  described  in  Sahagun's  account  of  the  Mexican 
festivals.  Another  peculiarity  connected  with  his 
worship  was  that  he  was  one  of  the  few  Mexican 
deities  who  had  any  relation  to  the  expiation  of  sin. 
Sin  was  symbolised  by  the  Nahua  as  excrement,  and  in 
various  manuscripts  Tezcatlipoca  is  represented  as  a 
turkey-cock  to  which  ordure  is  being  offered  up. 

Of  the  festival  of  the  Teotleco  Sahagun  says  :  "  In 
the  twelfth  month  a  festival  was  celebrated  in  honour 
of  all  the  gods,  who  were  said  to  have  gone  to  some 
country  I  know  not  where.  On  the  last  day  of  the 
month  a  greater  one  was  held,  because  the  gods  had 
returned.  On  the  fifteenth  day  of  this  month  the 
young  boys  and  the  servitors  decked  all  the  altars  or 
oratories  of  the  gods  with  boughs,  as  well  as  those 
which  were  in  the  houses,  and  the  images  which  were 
set  up  by  the  wayside  and  at  the  cross-roads.  This 
work  was  paid  for  in  maize.  Some  received  a  basketful, 
and  others  only  a  few  ears.  On  the  eighteenth  day  the 
ever-youthful  god  Tlamatzincatl  or  Titlacahuan  arrived. 
It  was  said  that  he  marched  better  and  arrived  the  first 
because  he  was  strong  and  young.  Food  was  offered 
68 


THE  TOXCATL  FESTIVAL 

him  in  his  temple  on  that  night.  Every  one  drank, 
ate,  and  made  merry.  The  old  people  especially 
celebrated  the  arrival  of  the  god  by  drinking  wine, 
and  it  was  alleged  that  his  feet  were  washed  by  these 
rejoicings.  The  last  day  of  the  month  was  marked  by 
a  great  festival,  on  account  of  the  belief  that  the  whole 
of  the  gods  arrived  at  that  time.  On  the  preceding 
night  a  quantity  of  flour  was  kneaded  on  a  carpet  into 
the  shape  of  a  cheese,  it  being  supposed  that  the  gods 
would  leave  a  footprint  thereon  as  a  sign  of  their 
return.  The  chief  attendant  watched  all  night,  going 
to  and  fro  to  see  if  the  impression  appeared.  When  he 
at  last  saw  it  he  called  out,  '  The  master  has  arrived,' 
and  at  once  the  priests  of  the  temple  began  to  sound 
the  horns,  trumpets,  and  other  musical  instruments 
used  by  them.  Upon  hearing  this  noise  every  one  set 
forth  to  offer  food  in  all  the  temples."  The  next  day 
the  aged  gods  were  supposed  to  arrive,  and  young 
men  disguised  as  monsters  hurled  victims  into  a  huge 
sacrificial  fire. 

The  Toxcatl  Festival 

The  most  remarkable  festival  in  connection  with 
Tezcatlipoca  was  the  Toxcatl,  held  in  the  fifth  month. 
On  the  day  of  this  festival  a  youth  was  slain  who 
for  an  entire  year  previously  had  been  carefully  in- 
structed in  the  r$/e  of  victim.  He  was  selected 
from  among  the  best  war  captives  of  the  year,  and 
must  be  without  spot  or  blemish.  He  assumed  the 
name,  garb,  and  attributes  of  Tezcatlipoca  himself,  and 
was  regarded  with  awe  by  the  entire  populace,  who 
imagined  him  to  be  the  earthly  representative  of  the 
deity.  He  rested  during  the  day,  and  ventured  forth 
at  night  only,  armed  with  the  dart  and  shield  of  tha 
god,  to  scour  the  roads.  This  practice  was,  of  course, 

69 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

symbolical  of  the  wind-god's  progress  over  the  night- 
bound  highways.  He  carried  also  the  whistle  sym- 
bolical of  the  deity,  and  made  with  it  a  noise  such  as 
the  weird  wind  of  night  makes  when  it  hurries  through 
the  streets.  To  his  arms  and  legs  small  bells  were 
attached.  He  was  followed  by  a  retinue  of  pages,  and  at 
intervals  rested  upon  the  stone  seats  which  were 
placed  upon  the  highways  for  the  convenience  of 
Tezcatlipoca.  Later  in  the  year  he  was  mated  to  four 
beautiful  maidens  of  high  birth,  with  whom  he  passed 
the  time  in  amusement  of  every  description.  He  was 
entertained  at  the  tables  of  the  nobility  as  the  earthly 
representative  of  Tezcatlipoca,  and  his  latter  days  were 
one  constant  round  of  feasting  and  excitement.  At 
last  the  fatal  day  upon  which  he  must  be  sacrificed 
arrived.  He  took  a  tearful  farewell  of  the  maidens 
whom  he  had  espoused,  and  was  carried  to  the  teocalli 
of  sacrifice,  upon  the  sides  of  which  he  broke  the 
musical  instruments  with  which  he  had  beguiled  the 
time  of  his  captivity.  When  he  reached  the  summit 
he  was  received  by  the  high-priest,  who  speedily  made 
him  one  with  the  god  whom  he  represented  by  tearing 
his  heart  out  on  the  stone  of  sacrifice. 

Huitzilopochtli,  the  "Wat-'God 

Huitzilopochtli  occupied  in  the  Aztec  pantheon  a 
place  similar  to  that  of  Mars  in  the  Roman.  His 
origin  is  obscure,  but  the  myth  relating  to  it  is  dis- 
tinctly original  in  character.  It  recounts  how,  under 
the  shadow  of  the  mountain  of  Coatepec,  near  the 
Toltec  city  of  Tollan,  there  dwelt  a  pious  widow  called 
Coatlicue,  the  mother  of  a  tribe  of  Indians  called  Cent- 
zonuitznaua,  who  had  a  daughter  called  Coyolxauhqui, 
and  who  daily  repaired  to  a  small  hill  with  the  intention 
of  offering  up  prayers  to  the  gods  in  a  penitent  spirit 
70 


The  Infant  War-God  drives  his  Brethren  into  a  Lake  and  slays  them 

Gilbert  James  70 


HUITZILOPOCHTLI  THE  WAR-GOD 

of  piety.  Whilst  occupied  in  her  devotions  one  day 
she  was  surprised  by  a  small  ball  of  brilliantly  coloured 
feathers  falling  upon  her  from  on  high.  She  was 
pleased  by  the  bright  variety  of  its  hues,  and  placed  it 
in  her  bosom,  intending  to  offer  it  up  to  the  sun-god. 
Some  time  afterwards  she  learnt  that  she  was  to  become 
the  mother  of  another  child.  Her  sons,  hearing  of 
this,  rained  abuse  upon  her,  being  incited  to  humiliate 
her  in  every  possible  way  by  their  sister  Coyolxauhqui. 

Coa"tlicue  went  about  in  fear  and  anxiety  ;  but  the 
spirit  of  her  unborn  infant  came  and  spoke  to  her 
and  gave  her  words  of  encouragement,  soothing  her 
troubled  heart.  Her  sons,  however,  were  resolved  to 
wipe  out  what  they  considered  an  insult  to  their  race 
by  the  death  of  their  mother,  and  took  counsel  with 
one  another  to  slay  her.  They  attired  themselves  in 
their  war-gear,  and  arranged  their  hair  after  the  manner 
of  warriors  going  to  battle.  But  one  of  their  number, 
Quauitlicac,  relented,  and  confessed  the  perfidy  of  his 
brothers  to  the  still  unborn  Huitzilopochtli,  who  re- 
plied to  him  :  "  O  brother,  hearken  attentively  to  what 
I  have  to  say  to  you.  I  am  fully  informed  of  what 
is  about  to  happen."  With  the  intention  of  slaying 
their  mother,  the  Indians  went  in  search  of  her.  At 
their  head  marched  their  sister,  Coyolxauhqui.  They 
were  armed  to  the  teeth,  and  carried  bundles  of  darts 
with  which  they  intended  to  kill  the  luckless  Coatlicue. 

Quauitlicac  climbed  the  mountain  to  acquaint 
Huitzilopochtli  with  the  news  that  his  brothers  were 
approaching  to  kill  their  mother. 

"Mark  well  where  they  are  at,"  replied  the  infant 
god.  "  To  what  place  have  they  advanced  ?  " 

"ToTzompantitlan,"  responded  Quauitlicac. 

Later  on  Huitzilopochtli  asked  :  <c  Where  may  they 
be  now  ? " 

71 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

"  At  Coaxalco,"  was  the  reply. 

Once  more  Huitzilopochtli  asked  to  what  point  his 
enemies  had  advanced. 

"  They  are  now  at  Petlac,"  Quauitlicac  replied. 

After  a  little  while  Quauitlicac  informed  Huitzilo- 
pochtli that  the  Centzonuitznaua  were  at  hand  under 
the  leadership  of  Coyolxauhqui.  At  the  moment  of 
the  enemy's  arrival  Huitzilopochtli  was  born,  flourish- 
ing a  shield  and  spear  of  a  blue  colour.  He  was 
painted,  his  head  was  surmounted  by  a  panache,  and 
his  left  leg  was  covered  with  feathers.  He  shattered 
Coyolxauhqui  with  a  flash  of  serpentine  lightning,  and 
then  gave  chase  to  the  Centzonuitznaua,  whom  he 
pursued  four  times  round  the  mountain.  They  did 
not  attempt  to  defend  themselves,  but  fled  incon- 
tinently. Many  perished  in  the  waters  of  the  adjoining 
lake,  to  which  they  had  rushed  in  their  despair.  All 
were  slain  save  a  few  who  escaped  to  a  place  called 
Uitzlampa,  where  they  surrendered  to  Huitzilopochtli 
and  gave  up  their  arms. 

The  name  Huitzilopochtli  signifies  "Humming-bird 
to  the  left,"  from  the  circumstance  that  the  god  wore 
the  feathers  of  the  humming-bird,  or  colibri,  on  his  left 
leg.  From  this  it  has  been  inferred  that  he  was  a 
humming-bird  totem.  The  explanation  of  Huitzilo- 
pochtli's  origin  is  a  little  deeper  than  this,  however. 
Among  the  American  tribes,  especially  those  of  the 
northern  continent,  the  serpent  is  regarded  with  the 
deepest  veneration  as  the  symbol  of  wisdom  and  magic. 
From  these  sources  come  success  in  war.  The  serpent 
also  typifies  the  lightning,  the  symbol  of  the  divine 
spear,  the  apotheosis  of  warlike  might.  Fragments  of 
serpents  are  regarded  as  powerful  war-physic  among 
many  tribes.  Atatarho,  a  mythical  wizard-king  of  the 
Iroquois,  was  clothed  with  living  serpents  as  with  a 
7* 


HUITZILOPOCHTLI   THE   WAR-GOD 

robe,  and  his  myth  throws  light  on  one  of  the  names 
of  Huitzilopochtli's  mother,  Coatlantona  (Robe  of 
Serpents).  Huitzilopochtli's  image  was  surrounded 
by  serpents,  and  rested  on  serpent-shaped  supporters. 
His  sceptre  was  a  single  snake,  and  his  great  drum 
was  of  serpent-skin. 

In  American  mythology  the  serpent  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  bird.  Thus  the  name  of  the  god 
Quetzalcoatl  is  translatable  as  "  Feathered  Serpent," 
and  many  similar  cases  where  the  conception  of  bird 
and  serpent  have  been  unified  could  be  adduced. 
Huitzilopochtli  is  undoubtedly  one  of  these.  We  may 
regard  him  as  a  god  the  primary  conception  of  whom 
arose  from  the  idea  of  the  serpent,  the  symbol  of 
warlike  wisdom  and  might,  the  symbol  of  the  warrior's 
dart  or  spear,  and  the  humming-bird,  the  harbinger  of 
summer,  type  of  the  season  when  the  snake  or  lightning 
god  has  power  over  the  crops. 

Huitzilopochtli  was  usually  represented  as  wearing 
on  his  head  a  waving  panache  or  plume  of  humming- 
birds' feathers.  His  face  and  limbs  were  striped  with 
bars  of  blue,  and  in  his  right  hand  he  carried  four 
spears.  His  left  hand  bore  his  shield,  on  the  surface  of 
which  were  displayed  five  tufts  of  down,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  a  quincunx.  The  shield  was  made  with  reeds, 
covered  with  eagle's  down.  The  spear  he  brandished 
was  also  tipped  with  tufts  of  down  instead  of  flint. 
These  weapons  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  those  who 
as  captives  engaged  in  the  sacrificial  fight,  for  in  the 
Aztec  mind  Huitzilopochtli  symbolised  the  warrior's 
death  on  the  gladiatorial  stone  of  combat.  As  has 
been  said,  Huitzilopochtli  was  war-god  of  the  Aztecs, 
and  was  supposed  to  have  led  them  to  the  site  of 
Mexico  from  their  original  home  in  the  north.  The 
city  of  Mexico  took  its  name  from  one  of  its  districts, 

73 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
which  was  designated  by  a  title  of  Huitzilopochtli's, 
Mexitli  (Hare  of  the  Aloes). 

The  "War-God  as  Fertiliser 

But  Huitzilopochtli  was  not  a  war-god  alone.  As 
the  serpent-god  of  lightning  he  had  a  connection  with 
lummer,  the  season  of  lightning,  and  therefore  had 
dominion  to  some  extent  over  the  crops  and  fruits  of 
the  earth.  The  Algonquian  Indians  of  North  America 
believed  that  the  rattlesnake  could  raise  ruinous  storms 
or  grant  favourable  breezes.  They  alluded  to  it  also 
as  the  symbol  of  life,  for  the  serpent  has  a  phallic 
significance  because  of  its  similarity  to  the  symbol  of 
generation  and  fructification.  With  some  American 
tribes  also,  notably  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  Arizona,  the 
serpent  has  a  solar  significance,  and  with  tail  in  mouth 
symbolises  the  annual  round  of  the  sun.  The  Nahua 
believed  that  Huitzilopochtli  could  grant  them  fair 
weather  for  the  fructification  of  their  crops,  and  they 
placed  an  image  of  Tlaloc,  the  rain-god,  near  him,  so 
that,  if  necessary,  the  war-god  could  compel  the  rain- 
maker to  exert  his  pluvial  powers  or  to  abstain  from 
the  creation  of  floods.  We  must,  in  considering  the 
nature  of  this  deity,  bear  well  in  mind  the  connection 
in  the  Nahua  consciousness  between  the  pantheon,  war, 
and  the  food-supply.  If  war  was  not  waged  annually 
the  gods  must  go  without  flesh  food  and  perish,  and  if 
the  gods  succumbed  the  crops  would  fail,  and  famine 
would  destroy  the  race.  So  it  was  small  wonder  that 
Huitzilopochtli  was  one  of  the  chief  gods  of  Mexico. 

Huitzilopochtli's  principal  festival  was  the  Toxcatl, 
celebrated  immediately  after  the  Toxcatl  festival  of 
Tezcatlipoca,  to  which  it  bore  a  strong  resemblance. 
Festivals  of  the  god  were  held  in  May  and  December, 
at  the  latter  of  which  an  image  of  him,  moulded  in 
74 


TLALOG  THE  RAIN-GOD 

dough  kneaded  with  the  blood  of  sacrificed  children, 
was  pierced  by  the  presiding  priest  with  an  arrow — an 
act  significant  of  the  death  of  Huitzilopochtli  until  his 
resurrection  in  the  next  year. 

Strangely  enough,  when  the  absolute  supremacy 
of  Tezcatlipoca  is  remembered,  the  high-priest  of 
Huitzilopochtli,  the  Mexicatl  Teohuatzin,  was  con- 
sidered to  be  the  religious  head  of  the  Mexican 
priesthood.  The  priests  of  Huitzilopochtli  held  office 
by  right  of  descent,  and  their  primate  exacted  absolute 
obedience  from  the  priesthoods  of  all  the  other  deities, 
being  regarded  as  next  to  the  monarch  himself  in 
power  and  dominion. 

TIaloc,  the  Rain»God 

Tlaloc  was  the  god  of  rain  and  moisture.  In  a 
country  such  as  Mexico,  where  the  success  or  failure  of 
the  crops  depends  entirely  upon  the  plentiful  nature  or 
otherwise  of  the  rainfall,  he  was,  it  will  be  readily 
granted,  a  deity  of  high  importance.  It  was  believed 
that  he  made  his  home  in  the  mountains  which  sur- 
round the  valley  of  Mexico,  as  these  were  the  source 
of  the  local  rainfall,  and  his  popularity  is  vouched  for 
by  the  fact  that  sculptured  representations  of  him  occur 
more  often  than  those  of  any  other  of  the  Mexican 
deities.  He  is  generally  represented  in  a  semi-recum- 
bent attitude,  with  the  upper  part  of  the  body  raised 
upon  the  elbows,  and  the  knees  half  drawn  up,  probably 
to  represent  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country 
whence  comes  the  rain.  He  was  espoused  to  Chal- 
chihuitlicue  (Emerald  Lady),  who  bore  him  a  numerous 
progeny,  the  Tlalocs  (Clouds).  Many  of  the  figures 
which  represented  him  were  carved  from  the  green 
stone  called  chakhiuitl  (jadeite),  to  typify  the  colour 
of  water,  and  in  some  of  these  he  was  shown  holding 

75 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO   AND  PERU 

a  serpent  of  gold  to  typify  the  lightning,  for  water- 
gods  are  often  closely  identified  with  the  thunder,  which 
hangs  over  the  hills  and  accompanies  heavy  rains. 
Tlaloc,  like  his  prototype,  the  Kiche  god  Hurakan, 
manifested  himself  in  three  forms,  as  the  lightning- 
flash,  the  thunderbolt,  and  the  thunder.  Although  his 
image  faced  the  east,  where  he  was  supposed  to  have 
originated,  he  was  worshipped  as  inhabiting  the  four 
cardinal  points  and  every  mountain-top.  The  colours 
of  the  four  points  of  the  compass,  yellow,  green,  red, 
and  blue,  whence  came  the  rain-bearing  winds,  entered 
into  the  composition  of  his  costume,  which  was  further 
crossed  with  streaks  of  silver,  typifying  the  mountain 
torrents.  A  vase  containing  every  description  of  grain 
was  usually  placed  before  his  idol,  an  offering  of  the 
growth  which  it  was  hoped  he  would  fructify.  He 
dwelt  in  a  many-watered  paradise  called  Tlalocan  (The 
Country  of  Tlaloc),  a  place  of  plenty  and  fruitfulness, 
where  those  who  had  been  drowned  or  struck  by 
lightning  or  had  died  from  dropsical  diseases  enjpyed 
eternal  bliss.  Those  of  the  common  people  who  did 
not  die  such  deaths  went  to  the  dark  abode  of  Mictlan, 
the  all-devouring  and  gloomy  Lord  of  Death. 

In  the  native  manuscripts  Tlaloc  is  usually  portrayed 
as  having  a  dark  complexion,  a  large  round  eye,  a  row 
of  tusks,  and  over  the  lips  an  angular  blue  stripe  curved 
downward  and  rolled  up  at  the  ends.  The  latter 
character  is  supposed  to  have  been  evolved  originally 
from  the  coils  of  two  snakes,  their  mouths  with  long  fangs 
in  the  upper  jaw  meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  upper 
lip.  The  snake,  besides  being  symbolised  by  lightning  in 
many  American  mythologies,  is  also  symbolical  of  water, 
which  is  well  typified  in  its  sinuous  movements. 

Many  maidens  and  children  were  annually  sacrificed 
to  Tlaloc.  If  the  children  wept  it  was  regarded  as  a 
76 


u 


SACRIFICES   TO   TLALOC 

happy  omen  for  *  rainy  season.  The  Etzalqualiitli 
(When  they  eat  Bean  Food)  was  his  chief  festival,  and 
was  held  on  a  day  approximating  to  May  13,  about 
which  date  the  rainy  season  usually  commenced. 
Another  festival  in  his  honour,  the  Quauitleua,  com- 
menced the  Mexican  year  on  February  2.  At  the 
former  festival  the  priests  of  Tlaloc  plunged  into  a 
lake,  imitating  the  sounds  and  movements  of  frogs, 
which,  as  denizens  of  water,  were  under  the  special 
protection  of  the  god.  Chalchihuitlicue,  his  wife,  was 
often  symbolised  by  the  small  image  of  a  frog. 

Sacrifices  to  Tlaloc 

Human  sacrifices  also  took  place  at  certain  points  in 
the  mountains  where  artificial  ponds  were  consecrated 
to  Tlaloc.  Cemeteries  were  situated  in  their  vicinity, 
and  offerings  to  the  god  interred  near  the  burial-place 
of  the  bodies  of  the  victims  slain  in  his  service.  His 
statue  was  placed  on  the  highest  mountain  of  Tezcuco, 
and  an  old  writer  mentions  that  five  or  six  young 
children  were  annually  offered  to  the  god  at  various 
points,  their  hearts  torn  out,  and  their  remains  interred. 
The  mountains  Popocatepetl  and  Teocuinani  were  re- 
garded as  his  special  high  places,  and  on  the  heights 
of  the  latter  was  built  his  temple,  in  which  stood  his 
image  carved  in  green  stone. 

The  Nahua  believed  that  the  constant  production  of 
food  and  rain  induced  a  condition  of  senility  in  those 
deities  whose  duty  it  was  to  provide  them.  This  they 
attempted  to  stave  off",  fearing  that  if  they  failed  in  so 
doing  the  gods  would  perish.  They  afforded  them, 
accordingly,  a  period  of  rest  and  recuperation,  and  once 
in  eight  years  a  festival  called  the  Atamalqualiztli  (Fast 
of  Porridge-balls  and  Water)  was  held,  during  which 
every  one  in  the  Nahua  community  returned  for  the  time 

77 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

being  to  the  conditions  of  savage  life.  Dressed  in  cos- 
tumes representing  all  forms  of  animal  and  bird  life, 
and  mimicking  the  sounds  made  by  the  various  creatures 
they  typified,  the  people  danced  round  the  teocalli  of 
Tlaloc  for  the  purpose  of  diverting  and  entertaining  him 
after  his  labours  in  producing  the  fertilising  rains  of 
the  past  eight  years.  A  lake  was  filled  with  water-snakes 
and  frogs,  and  into  this  the  people  plunged,  catching 
the  reptiles  in  their  mouths  and  devouring  them  alive. 
The  only  grain  food  which  might  be  partaken  during 
this  season  of  rest  was  thin  water-porridge  of  maize. 

Should  one  of  the  more  prosperous  peasants  or 
yeomen  deem  a  rainfall  necessary  to  the  growth  of  his 
crops,  or  should  he  fear  a  drought,  he  sought  out  one 
of  the  professional  makers  of  dough  or  paste  idols,  whom 
he  desired  to  mould  one  of  Tlaloc.  To  this  image 
offerings  of  maize-porridge  and  pulque  were  made. 
Throughout  the  night  the  farmer  and  his  neighbours 
danced,  shrieking  and  howling  round  the  figure  for 
the  purpose  of  rousing  Tlaloc  from  his  drought- 
bringing  slumbers.  Next  day  was  spent  in  quaffing 
huge  libations  of  pulque^  and  in  much-needed  rest 
from  the  exertions  of  the  previous  night. 

In  Tlaloc  it  is  easy  to  trace  resemblances  to  a  mytho- 
logical conception  widely  prevalent  among  the  indigenous 
American  peoples.  He  is  similar  to  such  deities  as  the 
Hurakan  of  the  Kiche  of  Guatemala,  the  Pillan  of  the 
aborigines  of  Chile,  and  Con,  the  thunder-god  of  the 
Collao  of  Peru.  Only  his  thunderous  powers  are  not 
so  apparent  as  his  rain-making  abilities,  and  in  this  he 
differs  somewhat  from  the  gods  alluded  to. 

Quettalcoatl 

It  is  highly  probable  that  Quetzalcoatl  was  a  deity  of 
the  pre-Nahua  people  of  Mexico.  He  was  regarded  by 


QUETZALGOATL 

the  Aztec  race  as  a  god  of  somewhat  alien  character, 
and  had  but  a  limited  following  in  Mexico,  the  city  of 
Huitzilopochtli.  In  Cholula,  however,  and  others  of 
the  older  towns  his  worship  flourished  exceedingly.  He 
was  regarded  as  "  The  Father  of  the  Toltecs,"  and, 
legend  says,  was  the  seventh  and  youngest  son  of  the 
Toltec  Abraham,  Iztacmixcohuatl.  Quetzalcoatl  (whose 
name  means"  Feathered  Serpent "  or  "Feathered  Staff") 
became,  at  a  relatively  early  period,  ruler  of  Tollan, 
and  by  his  enlightened  sway  and  his  encouragement  of 
the  liberal  arts  did  much  to  further  the  advancement 
of  his  people.  His  reign  had  lasted  for  a  period 
sufficient  to  permit  of  his  placing  the  cultivated  arts 
upon  a  satisfactory  basis  when  the  country  was  visited 
by  the  cunning  magicians  Tezcatlipoca  and  Coyotl  inaual, 
god  of  the  Amantecas.  Disentangled  from  its  terms 
of  myth,  this  statement  may  be  taken  to  imply  that 
bands  of  invading  Nahua  first  began  to  appear  within 
the  Toltec  territories.  Tezcatlipoca,  descending  from 
the  sky  in  the  shape  of  a  spider  by  way  of  a  fine  web, 
proffered  him  a  draught  of  pulque^  which  so  intoxicated 
him  that  the  curse  of  lust  descended  upon  him,  and 
he  forgot  his  chastity  with  Quetzalpetlatl.  The  doom 
pronounced  upon  him  was  the  hard  one  of  banishment, 
and  he  was  compelled  to  forsake  Anahuac.  His  exile 
wrought  peculiar  changes  upon  the  face  of  the  country. 
He  secreted  his  treasures  of  gold  and  silver,  burned 
his  palaces,  transformed  the  cacao-trees  into  mezquites, 
and  banished  all  the  birds  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tollan.  The  magicians,  nonplussed  at  these  unexpected 
happenings,  begged  him  to  return,  but  he  refused  on 
the  ground  that  the  sun  required  his  presence.  He 
proceeded  to  Tabasco,  the  fabled  land  of  Tlapallan,  and, 
embarking  upon  a  raft  made  of  serpents,  floated  away 
to  the  east.  A  slightly  different  version  of  this  myth 

79 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
na«  already  been  given.  Other  accounti  state  that  the 
king  cast  himself  upon  a  funeral  pyre  and  was  consumed, 
and  that  the  ashes  arising  from  the  conflagration  flew 
upward,  and  were  changed  into  birds  of  brilliant  plumage. 
His  heart  also  soared  into  the  sky,  and  became  the  morn- 
ing star.  The  Mexicans  averred  that  Quetzalcoatl  died 
when  the  star  became  visible,  and  thus  they  bestowed 
upon  him  the  title  "  Lord  of  the  Dawn."  They  further 
said  that  when  he  died  he  was  invisible  for  four  days, 
and  that  for  eight  days  he  wandered  in  the  underworld, 
after  which  time  the  morning  star  appeared,  when  he 
achieved  resurrection,  and  ascended  his  throne  as  a  god. 

It  is  the  contention  of  some  authorities  that  the 
myth  of  Quetzalcoatl  points  to  his  status  as  god  of 
the  sun.  That  luminary,  they  say,  begins  his  diurnal 
journey  in  the  east,  whence  Quetzalcoatl  returned  as 
to  his  native  home.  It  will  be  recalled  that  Monte- 
zuma  and  his  subjects  imagined  that  Cortes  was  no 
other  than  Quetzalcoatl,  returned  to  his  dominions,  as 
an  old  prophecy  declared  he  would  do.  But  that  he 
stood  for  the  sun  itself  is  highly  improbable,  as  will  be 
shown.  First  of  all,  however,  it  will  be  well  to  pay 
some  attention  to  other  theories  concerning  his  origin. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  of  these  is  that  which 
regards  Quetzalcoatl  as  a  god  of  the  air.  He  is  con- 
nected, say  some,  with  the  cardinal  points,  and  wears 
the  insignia  of  the  cross,  which  symbolises  them.  Dr. 
Seler  says  of  him  :  "  He  has  a  protruding,  trumpet-like 
mouth,  for  the  wind-god  blows.  .  .  .  His  figure  sug- 
gests whirls  and  circles.  Hence  his  temples  were  built 
in  circular  form.  .  .  .  The  head  of  the  wind-god  stands 
for  the  second  of  the  twenty  day  signs,  which  was  called 
Ehecatl  (Wind)."  The  same  authority,  however,  in 
his  essay  on  Mexican  chronology,  gives  to  Quetzal- 
coatl a  dual  nature,  "  the  dual  nature  which  seems  to 
«o 


The  Aged  Quetzalcoatl  leaves  Mexico  on  a  Raft  of  Serpents         80 
Gilbert  James 


THE  MAN  OF  THE  SUN 

belong  to  the  wind-god  Quetzalcoatl,  who  now  appears 
simply  "  wind-god,  and  again  seems  to  show  the  true 
characters  of  the  old  god  of  fire  and  light."  * 

Dr.  Brinton  perceived  in  Quetzalcoatl  a  similar  dual 
nature.  "  He  is  both  lord  of  the  eastern  light  and 
of  the  winds,"  he  writes  (Myths  of  the  New  World, 
p.  214).  "Like  all  the  dawn  heroes,  he  too  was 
represented  as  of  white  complexion,  clothed  in  long, 
white  robes,  and,  as  many  of  the  Aztec  gods,  with  a 
full  and  flowing  beard.  .  .  .  He  had  been  overcome 
by  Tezcatlipoca,  the  wind  or  spirit  of  night,  who  had 
descended  from  heaven  by  a  spider's  web,  and  presented 
his  rival  with  a  draught  supposed  to  confer  immortality, 
but  in  fact  producing  an  intolerable  longing  for  home. 
For  the  wind  and  the  light  both  depart  when  the 
gloaming  draws  near,  or  when  the  clouds  spread  their 
dark  and  shadowy  webs  along  the  mountains,  and  pour 
the  vivifying  rain  upon  the  fields." 

The  theory  which  derives  Quetzalcoatl  from  a  "  cul- 
ture-hero "  who  once  actually  existed  is  scarcely  recon- 
cilable with  probability.  It  is  more  than  likely  that,  as 
in  the  case  of  other  mythical  paladins,  the  legend  of  a 
mighty  hero  arose  from  the  somewhat  weakened  idea 
of  a  great  deity.  Some  of  the  early  Spanish  mis- 
sionaries professed  to  see  in  Quetzalcoatl  the  Apostle 
St.  Thomas,  who  had  journeyed  to  America  to  effect 
its  conversion ! 

The  Man  of  the  Sun 

A  more  probable  explanation  of  the  origin  of  Quetzal- 
coatl and  a  more  likely  elucidation  of  his  nature  is  that 
which  would  regard  him  as  the  Man  of  the  Sun,  who 
has  quitted  his  abode  for  a  season  for  the  purpose 
of  inculcating  in  mankind  those  arts  which  represent 
1  Bulletin  28  of  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Ethnology. 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

the  first  steps  in  civilisation,  who  fulfils  his  mission, 
and  who,  at  a  late  period,  is  displaced  by  the  deities 
of  an  invading  race.  Quetzalcoatl  was  represented  as 
a  traveller  with  staff  in  hand,  and  this  is  proof  of  his 
solar  character,  as  is  the  statement  that  under  his  rule 
the  fruits  of  the  earth  flourished  more  abundantly  than 
at  any  subsequent  period.  The  abundance  of  gold 
said  to  have  been  accumulated  in  his  reign  assists  the 
theory,  the  precious  metal  being  invariably  associated 
with  the  sun  by  most  barbarous  peoples.  In  the  native 
pinturas  it  is  noticeable  that  the  solar  disc  and  semi- 
disc  are  almost  invariably  found  in  connection  with  the 
feathered  serpent  as  the  symbolical  attributes  of  Quetzal- 
coatl. The  Hopi  Indians  of  Mexico  at  the  present 
day  symbolise  the  sun  as  a  serpent,  tail  in  mouth,  and 
the  ancient  Mexicans  introduced  the  solar  disc  in  con- 
nection with  small  images  of  Quetzalcoatl,  which  they 
attached  to  the  head-dress.  In  still  other  examples 
Quetzalcoatl  is  pictured  as  if  emerging  or  stepping  from 
the  luminary,  which  is  represented  as  his  dwelling-place. 
Several  tribes  tributary  to  the  Aztecs  were  in  the 
habit  of  imploring  Quetzalcoatl  in  prayer  to  return  and 
free  them  from  the  intolerable  bondage  of  the  con- 
queror. Notable  among  them  were  the  Totonacs,  who 
passionately  believed  that  the  sun,  their  father,  would 
send  a  god  who  would  free  them  from  the  Aztec  yoke. 
On  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards  the  European  con- 
querors were  hailed  as  the  servants  of  Quetzalcoatl, 
thus  in  the  eyes  of  the  natives  fulfilling  the  tradition 
that  he  would  return. 

Various  Forms  of  Quetzalcoatl 

Various  conceptions  of  Quetzalcoatl  are  noticeable 
in  the  mythology  of  the  territories  which  extended  from 
the  north  of  Mexico  to  the  marshes  of  Nicaragua.  In 


QUETZALCOATL'S   NORTHERN  ORIGIN 

Guatemala  the  niches  recognised  him  as  Gucumatx, 
and  in  Yucatan  proper  he  was  worshipped  as  Kukulcan, 
both  of  which  names  are  but  literal  translations  of  his 
Mexican  title  of  "  Feathered  Serpent "  into  Kiche  and 
Mayan.  That  the  three  deities  are  one  and  the  same 
there  can  be  no  shadow  of  doubt.  Several  authorities 
have  seen  in  Kukulcan  a  "  serpent-and-rain  god."  He 
can  only  be  such  in  so  far  as  he  is  a  solar  god  also. 
The  cult  of  the  feathered  snake  in  Yucatan  was  unques- 
tionably a  branch  of  sun-worship.  In  tropical  latitudes 
the  sun  draws  the  clouds  round  him  at  noon.  The  rain 
falls  from  the  clouds  accompanied  by  thunder  and 
lightning — the  symbols  of  the  divine  serpent.  There- 
fore the  manifestations  of  the  heavenly  serpent  were 
directly  associated  with  the  sun,  and  no  statement  that 
Kukulcan  is  a  mere  serpent-and-water  god  satisfactorily 
elucidates  his  characteristics. 

Quetzalcoatl's  Northern  Origin 

It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  Quetzalcoatl  was 
of  northern  origin,  and  that  on  his  adoption  by  southern 
peoples  and  tribes  dwelling  in  tropical  countries  his 
characteristics  were  gradually  and  unconsciously  altered 
in  order  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  his  environment. 
The  mythology  of  the  Indians  of  British  Columbia, 
whence  in  all  likelihood  the  Nahua  originally  came,  is 
possessed  of  a  central  figure  bearing  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  Quetzalcoatl.  Thus  the  Thlingit  tribe  wor- 
ship Yetl  ;  theQuaquiutl  Indians,  Kanikilak;  the  Salish 
people  of  the  coast,  KumsnOotl,  Quaaqua,  or  Slaalekam. 
It  is  noticeable  that  these  divine  beings  are  worshipped 
as  the  Man  of  the  Sun,  and  totally  apart  from  the 
luminary  himself,  as  was  Quetzalcoatl  in  Mexico.  The 
Quaquiutl  believe  that  before  his  settlement  among 
them  for  the  purpose  of  inculcating  in  the  tribe  the  arts 

83 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
of  life,  the  sun  descended  as  a  bird,  and  assumed  a 
human  shape.  Kanikilak  is  his  son,  who,  as  his  emis- 
.sary,  spreads  the  arts  of  civilisation  over  the  world. 
So  the  Mexicans  believed  that  Quetzalcoatl  descended 
first  of  all  in  the  form  of  a  bird,  and  was  ensnared 
in  the  fowler's  net  of  the  Toltec  hero  Hucymatzin. 

The  tides  bestowed  upon  Quetzalcoatl  by  the  Nahua 
show  that  in  his  solar  significance  he  was  god  of  the 
vault  of  the  heavens,  as  well  as  merely  son  of  the  sun. 
He  was  alluded  to  as  Ehecatl  (The  Air),  Yolcuat  (The 
Rattlesnake),  Tohil  (The  Rumbler),  Nanihehecatl  (Lord 
of  the  Four  Winds),  Tlauizcalpantecutli  (Lord  of  the 
Light  of  the  Dawn).  The  whole  heavenly  vault  was 
his,  together  with  all  its  phenomena.  This  would  seem 
to  be  in  direct  opposition  to  the  theory  that  Tezcatlipoca 
was  the  supreme  god  of  the  Mexicans.  But  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  Tezcatlipoca  was  the  god  of  a  later 
age,  and  of  a  fresh  body  of  Nahua  immigrants,  and  as 
such  inimical  to  Quetzalcoatl,  who  was  probably  in  a 
similar  state  of  opposition  to  Itzamna,  a  Maya  deity  of 
Yucatan. 

The  Worship  of  Quetzalcoatl 

The  worship  of  Quetzalcoatl  was  in  some  degree 
antipathetic  to  that  of  the  other  Mexican  deities,  and 
his  priests  were  a  separate  caste.  Although  human 
sacrifice  was  by  no  means  so  prevalent  among  his 
devotees,  it  is  a  mistake  to  aver,  as  some  authorities 
have  done,  that  it  did  not  exist  in  connection  with  his 
worship.  A  more  acceptable  sacrifice  to  Quetzalcoatl 
appears  to  have  been  the  blood  of  the  celebrant  or 
worshipper,  shed  by  himself.  When  we  come  to  con- 
sider the  mythology  of  the  Zapotecs,  a  people  whose 
customs  and  beliefs  appear  to  have  formed  a  species  of 
link  between  the  Mexican  and  Mayan  civilisations,  we 


3  ~ 


o 


THE  MAIZE-GODS  OF  MEXICO 

shall  find  that  their  high-priests  occasionally  enacted  the 
legend  of  Quetzalcoatl  in  their  own  persons,  and  that 
their  worship,  which  appears  to  have  been  based  upon 
that  of  Quetzalcoatl,  had  as  one  of  its  most  pronounced 
characteristics  the  shedding  of  blood.  The  celebrant  or 
devotee  drew  blood  from  the  vessels  lying  under  the 
tongue  or  behind  the  ear  by  drawing  across  those 
tender  parts  a  cord  made  from  the  thorn-covered  fibres 
of  the  agave.  The  blood  was  smeared  over  the  mouths 
of  the  idols.  In  this  practice  we  can  perceive  an  act 
analogous  to  the  sacrificial  substitution  of  the  part  for 
the  whole,  as  obtaining  in  early  Palestine  and  many 
other  countries — a  certain  sign  that  tribal  or  racial 
opinion  has  contracted  a  disgust  for  human  sacrifice, 
and  has  sought  to  evade  the  anger  of  the  gods  by 
yielding  to  them  a  portion  of  the  blood  of  each 
worshipper,  instead  or  sacrificing  the  life  of  one  for 
the  general  weal. 

The  Maize'Gods  of  Mexico 

A  special  group  of  deities  called  Centeotl  presided 
over  the  agriculture  of  Mexico,  each  of  whom  per- 
sonified one  or  other  of  the  various  aspects  of  the 
maize-plant.  The  chief  goddess  of  maize,  however, 
was  Chicomecohuatl  (Seven-serpent),  her  name  being 
an  allusion  to  the  fertilising  power  of  water,  which 
element  the  Mexicans  symbolised  by  the  serpent.  As 
Xilonen  she  typified  the  xi/otc,  or  green  ear  of  the 
maize.  But  it  is  probable  that  Chicomecohuatl  was  the 
creation  of  an  older  race,  and  that  the  Nahua  new-comers 
adopted  or  brought  with  them  another  growth-spirit, 
the  "Earth-mother,"  Teteoinnan  (Mother  of  the  Gods), 
or  Tocitzin  (Our  Grandmother).  This  goddess  had  a  son, 
Centeotl,  a  male  maize-spirit.  Sometimes  the  mother 
was  also  known  as  Centeotl,  the  generic  name  for  the 

«5 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

entire  group,  and  this  fact  has  led  to  some  confusion 
in  the  minds  of  Americanists.  But  this  does  not  mean 
that  Chicomecohuatl  was  by  any  means  neglected. 
Her  spring  festival,  held  on  April  5,  was  known  as 
Hueytozoztli  (The  Great  Watch),  and  was  accompanied 
by  a  general  fast,  when  the  dwellings  of  the  Mexicans 
were  decorated  with  bulrushes  which  had  been  sprinkled 
with  blood  drawn  from  the  extremities  of  the  inmates. 
The  statues  of  the  little  tepitoton  (household  gods) 
were  also  decorated.  The  worshippers  then  proceeded 
to  the  maize-fields,  where  they  pulled  the  tender  stalks 
of  the  growing  maize,  and,  having  decorated  them  with 
flowers,  placed  them  in  the  calpulli  (the  common  house 
of  the  village).  A  mock  combat  then  took  place  before 
the  altar  of  Chicomecohuatl.  The  girls  of  the  village 
presented  the  goddess  with  bundles  of  maize  of  the 
previous  season's  harvesting,  later  restoring  them  to 
the  granaries  in  order  that  they  might  be  utilised  for 
seed  for  the  coming  year.  Chicomecohuatl  was  always 
represented  among  the  household  deities  of  .the 
Mexicans,  and  on  the  occasion  of  her  festival  the  family 
placed  before  the  image  a  basket  of  provisions  sur- 
mounted by  a  cooked  frog,  bearing  on  its  back  a  piece 
of  cornstalk  stuffed  with  pounded  maize  and  vegetables. 
This  frog  was  symbolic  of  Chalchihuitlicue,  wife  of 
Tlaloc,  the  rain-god,  who  assisted  Chicomecohuatl  in 
providing  a  bountiful  harvest.  In  order  that  the  soil 
might  further  benefit,  a  frog,  the  symbol  of  water,  was 
sacrificed,  so  that  its  vitality  should  recuperate  that  of 
the  weary  and  much-burdened  earth. 

The  Sacrifice  of  the  Dancer 

A  more  important  festival  of  Chicomecohuatl,  how- 
ever, was  the  Xalaquia,  which  lasted  from  June  28  to 
July  14,  commencing  when  the  maize  plant  had  attained 
86 


THE  SACRIFICE  OF  THE  DANCER 

its  full  growth.  The  women  of  the  pueblo  (village) 
wore  their  hair  unbound,  and  shook  and  tossed  it  so 
that  by  sympathetic  magic  the  maize  might  take  the 
hint  and  grow  correspondingly  long.  Chian  pinolli 
was  consumed  in  immense  quantities,  and  maize- 
porridge  was  eaten.  Hilarious  dances  were  nightly 
performed  in  the  teopan  (temple),  the  central  figure 
in  which  was  the  Xalaquia,  a  female  captive  or  slave, 
with  face  painted  red  and  yellow  to  represent  the 
colours  of  the  maize- plant.  She  had  previously  under- 
gone a  long  course  of  training  in  the  dancing-school, 
and  now,  all  unaware  of  the  horrible  fate  awaiting 
her,  she  danced  and  pirouetted  gaily  among  the  rest. 
Throughout  the  duration  of  the  festival  she  danced, 
and  on  its  expiring  night  she  was  accompanied  in  the 
dance  by  the  women  of  the  community,  who  circled 
round  her,  chanting  the  deeds  of  Chicomecohuatl. 
When  daybreak  appeared  the  company  was  joined  by 
the  chiefs  and  headmen,  who,  along  with  the  exhausted 
and  half-fainting  victim,  danced  the  solemn  death-dance. 
The  entire  community  then  approached  the  teocalli 
(pyramid  of  sacrifice),  and,  its  summit  reached,  the  victim 
was  stripped  to  a  nude  condition,  the  priest  plunged  a 
knife  of  flint  into  her  bosom,  and,  tearing  out  the  still  pal- 
pitating heart,  offered  it  up  to  Chicomecohuatl.  In  this 
manner  the  venerable  goddess,  weary  with  the  labours 
of  inducing  growth  in  the  maize-plant,  was  supposed 
to  be  revivified  and  refreshed.  Hence  the  name 
Xalaquia,  which  signifies  "She  who  is  clothed  with 
the  Sand."  Until  the  death  of  the  victim  it  was  not 
lawful  to  partake  of  the  new  corn. 

The  general  appearance  of  Chicomecohuatl  was  none 
too  pleasing.  Her  image  rests  in  the  National  Museum 
in  Mexico,  and  is  girdled  with  snakes.  On  the  under- 
side the  symbolic  frog  is  carved.  The  Americanists 

*7 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

of  the  eighteenth  and  early  nineteenth  centuries  were 
unequal  to  the  task  of  elucidating  the  origin  of  the 
figure,  which  they  designated  Teoyaominqui.  The 
first  to  point  out  the  error  was  Payne,  in  his  History 
of  the  New  World  called  America,  vol.  i.  p.  424.  The 
passage  in  which  he  announces  his  discovery  is  of  such 
real  interest  that  it  is  worth  transcribing  fully. 

An  Antiquarian  Marc's-Nest 

"  All  the  great  idols  of  Mexico  were  thought  to 
have  been  destroyed  until  this  was  disinterred  among 
other  relics  in  the  course  of  making  new  drains  in  the 
Plaza  Mayor  of  Mexico  in  August  1790.  The  dis- 
covery produced  an  immense  sensation.  The  idol  was 
dragged  to  the  court  of  the  University,  and  there  set 
up  ;  the  Indians  began  to  worship  it  and  deck  it  with 
flowers  ;  the  antiquaries,  with  about  the  same  degree 
of  intelligence,  to  speculate  about  it.  What  most 
puzzled  them  was  that  the  face  and  some  other  parts 
of  the  goddess  are  found  in  duplicate  at  the  back  or 
the  figure  ;  hence  they  concluded  it  to  represent  two 
gods  in  one,  the  principal  of  whom  they  further  con- 
cluded to  be  a  female,  the  other,  indicated  by  the  back, 
a  male.  The  standard  author  on  Mexican  antiquities 
at  that  time  was  the  Italian  dilettante  Boturini,  of 
whom  it  may  be  said  that  he  is  better,  but  not  much 
better,  than  nothing  at  all.  From  page  27  of  his  work 
the  antiquaries  learned  that  Huitzilopochtli  was  accom- 
panied by  the  goddess  Teoyaominqui,  who  was  charged 
with  collecting  the  souls  of  those  slain  in  war  and 
sacrifice.  This  was  enough.  The  figure  was  at  once 
named  Teoyaominqui  or  Huitzilopochtli  (The  One  plus 
the  Other),  and  has  been  so  called  ever  since.  The 
antiquaries  next  elevated  this  imaginary  goddess  to 
the  rank  of  the  war-god's  wife.  'A  soldier,'  says 
38 


The  so-called  Teoyaominqui 
In  the  National  Museum,  Mexico 

Photo  C.  B.  Waite,  Mexico 


AN  ANTIQUARIAN  MARE'S-NEST 
Bardolph,  '  is  better  accommodated  than  with  a  wife '  : 
a  fortiori^  so  is  a  war-god.  Besides,  as  Torquemada 
(vol.  ii.  p.  47)  says  with  perfect  truth,  the  Mexicans 
did  not  think  so  grossly  of  the  divinity  as  to  have 
married  gods  or  goddesses  at  all.  The  figure  is 
undoubtedly  a  female.  It  has  no  vestige  of  any 
weapon  about  it,  nor  has  it  any  limbs.  It  differs  in 
every  particular  from  the  war-god  Huitzilopochtli, 
every  detail  of  which  is  perfectly  well  known.  There 
never  was  any  goddess  called  Teoyaominqui.  This 
may  be  plausibly  inferred  from  the  fact  that  such  a 
goddess  is  unknown  not  merely  to  Sahagun,  Torque- 
mada, Acosta,  Tezozomoc,  Duran,  and  Clavigero,  but 
to  all  other  writers  except  Boturini.  The  blunder  of 
the  last-named  writer  is  easily  explained.  Antonio 
Leon  y  Gama,  a  Mexican  astronomer,  wrote  an  account 
of  the  discoveries  of  1790,  in  which,  evidently  puzzled 
by  the  name  of  Teoyaominqui,  he  quotes  a  manuscript 
in  Mexican,  said  to  have  been  written  by  an  Indian  of 
Tezcuco,  who  was  born  in  1528,  to  the  effect  that 
Teoyaotlatohua  and  Teoyaominqui  were  spirits  who 
presided  over  the  fifteenth  of  the  twenty  signs  of  the 
fortune-tellers'  calendar,  and  that  those  born  in  this 
sign  would  be  brave  warriors,  but  would  soon  die. 
(As  the  fifteenth  sign  was  quauhtli^  this  is  likely 
enough.)  When  their  hour  had  come  the  former  spirit 
scented  them  out,  the  latter  killed  them.  The  rubbish 
printed  about  Huitzilopochtli,  Teoyaominqui,  and 
Mictlantecutli  in  connection  with  this  statue  would  fill  a 
respectable  volume.  The  reason  why  the  features  were 
duplicated  is  obvious.  The  figure  was  carried  in  the 
midst  of  a  large  crowd.  Probably  it  was  considered  to 
be  an  evil  omen  if  the  idol  turned  away  its  face  from 
its  worshippers  ;  this  the  duplicate  obviated.  So  when 
the  dance  was  performed  round  the  figure  (cf.  Janus). 

89 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
This  duplication  of  the  features,  a  characteristic  of  the 
very  oldest  gods,  appears  to  be  indicated  when  the 
numeral  ome  (two)  is  prefixed  to  the  title  of  the  deity. 
Thus  the  two  ancestors  and  preservers  of  the  race  were 
called  Ometecuhtli  and  Omecihuatl  (two-chief,  two- 
woman),  ancient  Toltec  gods,  who  at  the  conquest 
become  less  prominent  in  the  theology  of  Mexico,  and 
who  are  best  represented  in  that  of  the  Mexican  colony 
of  Nicaragua." 

The  Offering  to  Centcotl 

During  her  last  hours  the  victim  sacrificed  at  the 
Xalaquia  wore  a  ritual  dress  made  from  the  fibres  of 
the  aloe,  and  with  this  garment  the  maize-god  Centeotl 
was  clothed.  Robed  in  this  he  temporarily  represented 
the  earth-goddess,  so  that  he  might  receive  her  sacri- 
fice. The  blood  of  victims  was  offered  up  to  him  in  a 
vessel  decorated. with  that  brilliant  and  artistic  feather- 
work  which  excited  such  admiration  in  the  breasts  of 
the  connoisseurs  and  aesthetes  of  the  Europe  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Upon  partaking  of  this  blood- 
offering  the  deity  emitted  a  groan  so  intense  and 
terrifying  that  it  has  been  left  on  record  that  such 
Spaniards  as  were  present  became  panic-stricken.  This 
ceremony  was  followed  by  another,  the  nitifapoloa 
(tasting  of  the  soil),  which  consisted  in  raising  a  little 
earth  on  one  finger  to  the  mouth  and  eating  it. 

As  has  been  said,  Centeotl  the  son  has  been  con- 
founded with  Centeotl  the  mother,  who  is  in  reality 
the  earth-mother  Teteoinnan.  Each  of  these  deities 
had  a  teopan  (temple)  of  his  or  her  own,  but  they 
were  closely  allied  as  parent  and  child.  But  of  the 
two,  Centeotl  the  son  was  the  more  important.  On  the 
death  of  the  sacrificed  victim  her  skin  was  conveyed  to 
the  temple  of  Centeotl  the  son,  and  worn  there  in  the 
90 


.s  « 

.>    A    .o 

*SS 


2  S  s 

rt   U   S 


1! 


XIPE 

succeeding  ritual  by  the  officiating  priests.  This  grue- 
some dress  is  frequently  depicted  in  the  Aztec  pinturas, 
where  the  skin  of  the  hands,  and  in  some  instances  the 
feet,  of  the  victims  can  be  seen  dangling  from  the  wrists 
and  ankles  of  the  priest. 

Importance  of  the  Food-Gods 

To  the  Mexicans  the  deities  of  most  importance 
to  the  community  as  a  whole  were  undoubtedly 
the  food-gr>ds.  In  their  emergence  from  the  hunting 
to  the  agricultural  state  of  life,  when  they  began  to 
exist  almost  solely  upon  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  the 
Mexicans  were  quick  to  recognise  that  the  old  deities 
of  the  chase,  such  as  Mixcoatl,  could  not  now 
avail  them  or  succour  them  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  guardians  of  the  crops  and  fertilisers  of  the  soil. 
Gradually  we  see  these  gods,  then,  advance  in  power 
and  influence  until  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion 
we  find  them  paramount.  Even  the  terrible  war-god 
himself  had  an  agricultural  significance,  as  we  have 
pointed  out.  A  distinct  bargain  with  the  food-gods 
can  be  clearly  traced,  and  is  none  the  less  obvious 
because  it  was  never  written  or  codified.  The  cove- 
nant was  as  binding  to  the  native  mind  as  any  made 
betwixt  god  and  man  in  ancient  Palestine,  and  in- 
cluded mutual  assistance  as  well  as  provision  for  mere 
alimentary  supply.  In  no  mythology  is  the  under- 
standing between  god  and  man  so  clearly  defined  as 
in  the  Nahuan,  and  in  none  is  its  operation  better 
exemplified. 

Xipe 

Xipe  (The  Flayed)  was  widely  worshipped  through- 
out Mexico,  and  is  usually  depicted  in  the  pinturas  as 
being  attired  in  a  flayed  human  skin.  At  his  special 

9* 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
festival,  the  "  Man-flaying,"  the  skins  were  removed 
from  the  victims  and  worn  by  the  devotees  of  the 
god  for  the  succeeding  twenty  days.  He  is  usually 
represented  as  of  a  red  colour.  In  the  later  days  of  the 
Aztec  monarchy  the  kings  and  leaders  of  Mexico 
assumed  the  dress  or  classical  garments  of  Xipe. 
This  dress  consisted  of  a  crown  made  of  feathers 
of  the  roseate  spoonbill,  the  gilt  timbrel,  the  jacket 
of  spoonbill  feathers,  and  an  apron  of  green 
feathers  lapping  over  one  another  in  a  tile-like  pattern. 
In  the  Cozcatzin  Codex  we  see  a  picture  of  King 
Axayacatl  dressed  as  Xipe  in  a  feather  skirt,  and 
having  a  tiger-skin  scabbard  to  his  sword.  The  hands 
of  a  flayed  human  skin  also  dangle  over  the  monarch's 
wrists,  and  the  feet  fall  over  his  feet  like  gaiters. 

Xipc's  shield  is  a  round  target  covered  with  the 
rose-coloured  feathers  of  the  spoonbill,  with  concentric 
circles  of  a  darker  hue  on  the  surface.  There  are 
examples  of  it  divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  part, 
the  former  showing  an  emerald  on  a  blue  field,  and  the 
latter  a  tiger-skin  design.  Xipe  was  imagined  as  pos- 
sessing three  forms,  the  first  that  of  the  roseate  spoon- 
bill, the  second  that  of  the  blue  cotinga,  and  the  last  that 
of  a  tiger,  the  three  shapes  perhaps  corresponding  to  the 
regions  of  heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  or  to  the  three 
elements,  fire,  earth,  and  water.  The  deities  of  many 
North  American  Indian  tribes  show  similar  variations 
in  form  and  colour,  which  are  supposed  to  follow 
as  the  divinity  changes  his  dwelling  to  north,  south, 
east,  or  west.  But  Xipe  is  seldom  depicted  in  the 
pinturas  in  any  other  form  but  that  of  the  red  god, 
the  form  in  which  the  Mexicans  adopted  him  from 
the  Yopi  tribe  of  the  Pacific  slope.  He  is  the  god  of 
human  sacrifice  par  excellence^  and  may  be  regarded  as  a 
Yopi  equivalent  of  Tezcatlipoca. 
9* 


XOLOTL 

Nanahuatl,  or  Nanauatzia 

Nanahuatl  (Poor  Leper)  presided  over  skin  diseases, 
such  as  leprosy.  It  was  thought  that  persons  afflicted 
with  these  complaints  were  set  apart  by  the  moon  for  his 
service.  In  the  Nahua  tongue  the  words  for  "  leprous  " 
and  "eczematous  "  also  mean  "divine."  The  myth  of 
Nanahuatl  tells  how  before  the  sun  was  created  humanity 
dwelt  in  sable  and  horrid  gloom.  Only  a  human  sacrifice 
could  hasten  the  appearance  of  the  luminary.  Metztli 
(The  Moon)  led  forth  Nanahuatl  as  a  sacrifice,  and  he  was 
cast  upon  a  funeral  pyre,  in  the  flames  of  which  he  was 
consumed.  Metztli  also  cast  herself  upon  the  mass  of 
flame,  and  with  her  death  the  sun  rose  above  the  horizon. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  myth  refers  to  the  con- 
suming of  the  starry  or  spotted  night,  and  incidentally 
to  the  nightly  death  of  the  moon  at  the  flaming  hour 
of  dawn. 

Xolotl 

Xolotl  is  of  southern,  possibly  Zapotec,  origin. 
He  represents  either  fire  rushing  down  from  the  heavens 
or  light  flaming  upward.  It  is  noticeable  that  in  the 
tinturas  the  picture  of  the  setting  sun  being  devoured 
by  the  earth  is  nearly  always  placed  opposite  his  image. 
He  is  probably  identical  with  Nanahuatl,  and  appears  as 
the  representative  of  human  sacrifice.  He  has  also 
affinities  with  Xipe.  On  the  whole  Xolotl  may  be  best 
described  as  a  sun-god  of  the  more  southerly  tribes. 
His  head  (quaxototf)  was  one  of  the  most  famous 
devices  for  warriors'  use,  as  sacrifice  among  the  Nahua 
was,  as  we  have  seen,  closely  associated  with  warfare. 

Xolotl  was  a  mythical  figure  quite  foreign  to  the 
peoples  of  Anahuac  or  Mexico,  who  regarded  him  as 
something  strange  and  monstrous.  He  is  alluded  to  as 
the  "  God  of  Monstrosities,"  and,  thinks  Dr.  Seler,  the 

93 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
word  "  monstrosity "  may  suitably  translate  his  name. 
He  is  depicted  with  empty  eye-sockets,  which  circum- 
stance is  explained  by  the  myth  that  when  the  gods 
determined  to  sacrifice  themselves  in  order  to  give  life 
and  strength  to  the  newly  created  sun,  Xolotl  withdrew, 
and  wept  so  much  that  his  eyes  fell  out  of  their  sockets. 
This  was  the  Mexican  explanation  of  a  Zapotec  attribute. 
Xolotl  was  originally  the  "Lightning  Beast "  of  the  Maya 


XOLOTL 


or  some  other  southern  folk,  and  was  represented  by 
them  as  a  dog,  since  that  animal  appeared  to  them  to  be 
the  creature  which  he  most  resembled.  But  he  was  by 
no  means  a  "  natural "  dog,  hence  their  conception  of 
him  as  unnatural.  Dr.  Seler  is  inclined  to  identify  him 
with  the  tapir,  and  indeed  Sahagun  speaks  of  a  strange 
animal-being,  tlaca-xolotl^  which  has  "  a  large  snout, 
large  teeth,  hoofs  like  an  ox,  a  thick  hide,  and  reddish 
hair  " — not  a  bad  description  of  the  tapir  of  Central 
America.  Of  course  to  the  Mexicans  the  god  Xolotl 
was  no  longer  an  animal,  although  he  had  evolved  from 
one,  and  was  imagined  by  them  to  have  the  form 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration. 
94 


MICTLAN 
The  Fire-God 

This  deity  was  known  in  Mexico  under  various  names, 
notably  Tata  (Our  Father),  Huehueteotl  (Oldest  of 
Gods),  and  Xiuhtecutli  (Lord  of  the  Year).  He  was 
represented  as  of  the  colour  of  fire,  with  a  black  face,  a 
headdress  of  green  feathers,  and  bearing  on  his  back 
a  yellow  serpent,  to  typify  the  serpentine  nature  of 
fire.  He  also  bore  a  mirror  of  gold  to  show  his  con- 
nection with  the  sun,  from  which  all  heat  emanates. 
On  rising  in  the  morning  all  Mexican  families  made 
Xiuhtecutli  an  offering  of  a  piece  of  bread  and  a  drink. 
He  was  thus  not  only,  like  Vulcan,  the  god  of  thunder- 
bolts and  conflagrations,  but  also  the  milder  deity  of 
the  domestic  hearth.  Once  a  year  the  fire  in  every 
Mexican  house  was  extinguished,  and  rekindled  by 
friction  before  the  idol  of  Xiuhtecutli.  When  a 
Mexican  baby  was  born  it  passed  through  a  baptism  of 
fire  on  the  fourth  day,  up  to  which  time  a  fire,  lighted 
at  the  time  of  its  birth,  was  kept  burning  in  order  to 
nourish  its  existence. 

Mictlan 

Mictlantecutli  (Lord  of  Hades)  was  God  of  the  Dead 
and  'of  the  grim  and  shadowy  realm  to  which  the 
souls  of  men  repair  after  their  mortal  sojourn.  He  is 
represented  in  the  pinturas  as  a  grisly  monster  with 
capacious  mouth,  into  which  fall  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 
His  terrible  abode  was  sometimes  alluded  to  as  Tlalxicco 
(Navel  of  the  Earth),  but  the  Mexicans  in  general 
seem  to  have  thought  that  it  was  situated  in  the  far 
north,  which  they  regarded  as  a  place  of  famine,  desola- 
tion, and  death.  Here  those  who  by  the  circumstances 
of  their  demise  were  unfitted  to  enter  the  paradise  of 
Tlaloc — namely,  those  who  had  not  been  drowned  or 
had  not  died  a  warrior's  death,  or,  in  the  case  of  women, 

95 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

had  not  died  in  childbed — passed  a  dreary  and  mean- 
ingless  existence.  Mictlan  was  surrounded  by  a  species 
of  demons  called  tzifzimimes^  and  had  a  spouse,  Micte- 
caciuatl.  When  we  come  to  discuss  the  analogous 
deity  of  the  Maya  we  shall  see  that  in  all  probability 
Mictlan  was  represented  by  the  bat,  the  animal  typical 
of  the  underworld.  In  a  preceding  paragraph  dealing 
with  the  funerary  customs  we  have  described  the  journey 
of  the  soul  to  the  abode  of  Mictlan,  and  the  ordeals 
through  which  the  spirit  of  the  defunct  had  to  pass  ere 
entering  his  realm  (see  p.  37). 

Worship  of  the  Planet  Venus 

The  Mexicans  designated  the  planet  Venus  Citlalpol 
(The  Great  Star)  and  Tlauizcalpantecutli  (Lord  of 
the  Dawn).  It  seems  to  have  been  the  only  star  wor- 
shipped by  them,  and  was  regarded  with  considerable 
veneration.  Upon  its  rising  they  stopped  up  the 
chimneys  of  their  houses,  so  that  no  harm  of  any 
kind  might  enter  with  its  light.  A  column  called 
Ilhuicatlan,  meaning  "  In  the  Sky,"  stood  in  the  court 
of  the  great  temple  of  Mexico,  and  upon  this  a  symbol 
of  the  planet  was  painted.  On  its  reappearance  during 
its  usual  circuit,  captives  were  taken  before  this  repre- 
sentation and  sacrificed  to  it.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  myth  of  Quetzalcoatl  states  that  the  heart 
of  that  deity  flew  upward  from  the  funeral  pyre  on 
which  he  was  consumed  and  became  the  planet  Venus. 
It  is  not  easy  to  say  whether  or  not  this  myth  is 
anterior  to  the  adoption  of  the  worship  of  the  planet  by 
the  Nahua,  for  it  may  be  a  tale  of  pre-  or  post-Nahuan 
growth.  In  the  tonalamatl  Tlauizcalpantecutli  is  repre- 
sented as  lord  of  the  ninth  division  of  thirteen  days, 
beginning  with  Cc  Coatl  (the  sign  of"  One  Serpent "). 
In  several  of  thcpinturas  he  is  represented  as  having  a 
96 


SUN-WORSHIP 

white  body  with  long  red  stripes,  while  round  his  eyes 
is  a  deep  black  painting  like  a  domino  mask,  bordered 
with  small  white  circles.  His  lips  are  a  bright  ver- 
milion. The  red  stripes  are  probably  introduced  to 
accentuate  the  whiteness  of  his  body,  which  is  under- 
stood to  symbolise  the  peculiar  half-light  which  ema- 
nates from  the  planet.  The  black  paint  on  the 
face,  surrounding  the  eye,  typifies  the  dark  sky  of 
night.  In  Mexican  and  Central  American  symbolism 
the  eye  often  represents  light,  and  here,  surrounded 
by  blackness  as  it  is,  it  is  perhaps  almost  hieroglyphic. 
As  the  star  of  evening,  Tlauizcalpantecutli  is  some- 
times shown  with  the  face  of  a  skull,  to  signify  his 
descent  into  the  underworld,  whither  he  follows  the 
sun.  That  the  Mexicans  and  Maya  carefully  and  accu- 
rately observed  his  periods  of  revolution  is  witnessed 
by  the  pinlura s. 

Sun-Worship 

The  sun  was  regarded  by  the  Nahua,  and  indeed 
by  all  the  Mexican  and  Central  American  peoples,  as 
the  supreme  deity,  or  rather  the  principal  source  of 
subsistence  and  life.  He  was  always  alluded  to  as 
the  teotly  the  god,  and  his  worship  formed  as  it  were  a 
background  to  that  of  all  the  other  gods.  His  Mexican 
name,  Ipalnemohuani  (He  by  whom  Men  Live)  shows 
that  the  Mexicans  regarded  him  as  the  primal  source 
of  being,  and  the  heart,  the  symbol  of  life,  was  looked 
upon  as  his  special  sacrifice.  Those  who  rose  at  sun- 
rise to  prepare  food  for  the  day  held  up  to  him  on  his 
appearance  the  hearts  of  animals  they  had  slain  for 
cooking,  and  even  the  hearts  of  the  victims  to  Tezcat- 
lipoca  and  Huitzilopochtli  were  first  held  up  to  the 
sun,  as  if  he  had  a  primary  right  to  the  sacrifice,  before 
being  cast  into  the  bowl  of  copal  which  lay  at  the  feet 

c  97 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
of  the  idol.  It  was  supposed  that  the  luminary  rejoiced 
in  offerings  of  blood,  and  that  it  constituted  the  only 
food  which  would  render  him  sufficiently  vigorous  to 
undertake  his  daily  journey  through  the  heavens.  He 
is  often  depicted  in  the  pinturas  as  licking  up  the  gore 
of  the  sacrificial  victims  with  his  long  tongue-like  rays. 
The  sun  must  fare  well  if  he  was  to  continue  to  give 
life,  light,  and  heat  to  mankind. 

The  Mexicans,  as  we  have  already  seen,  believed  that 
the  luminary  they  knew  had  been  preceded  by  others, 
each  of  which  had  been  quenched  by  some  awful 
cataclysm  of  nature.  Eternity  had,  in  fact,  been  broken 
up  into  epochs,  marked  by  the  destruction  of  succes- 
sive suns.  In  the  period  preceding  that  in  which 
they  lived,  a  mighty  deluge  had  deprived  the  sun  of 
life,  and  some  such  catastrophe  was  apprehended  at 
the  end  of  every  "  sheaf"  of  fifty-two  years.  The  old 
suns  were  dead,  and  the  current  sun  was  no  more 
immortal  than  they.  At  the  end  of  one  of  the  "  sheaves  " 
he  too  would  succumb. 

Sustaining  the  Sun 

It  was  therefore  necessary  to  sustain  the  sun  by  the 
daily  food  of  human  sacrifice,  for  by  a  tithe  of  human  life 
alone  would  he  be  satisfied.  Naturally  a  people  hold- 
ing such  a  belief  would  look  elsewhere  than  within  their 
own  borders  for  the  material  wherewith  to  placate  their 
deity.  This  could  be  most  suitably  found  among  the 
inhabitants  of  a  neighbouring  state.  It  thus  became 
the  business  of  the  warrior  class  in  the  Aztec  state  to 
furnish  forth  the  altars  of  the  gods  with  human  victims. 
The  most  suitable  district  of  supply  was  the  pueblo  of 
Tlaxcallan,  or  Tlascala,  the  people  of  which  were  of 
cognate  origin  to  the  Aztecs.  The  communities  had, 
although  related,  been  separated  for  so  many  genera- 
98 


S"   S 

<     3    S 


3    « 
^ 


SUSTAINING  THE  SUN 

tions  that  they  had  begun  to  regard  each  other  as 
traditional  enemies,  and  on  a  given  day  in  the  year 
their  forces  met  at  an  appointed  spot  for  the  purpose 
of  engaging  in  a  strife  which  should  furnish  one  side 
or  the  other  with  a  sufficiency  of  victims  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sacrifice.  The  warrior  who  captured  the  largest 
number  of  opponents  alive  was  regarded  as  the  champion 
of  the  day,  and  was  awarded  the  chief  honours  of  the 
combat.  The  sun  was  therefore  the  god  of  warriors, 
as  he  would  give  them  victory  in  battle  in  order 
that  they  might  supply  him  with  food.  The  rites  of 
this  military  worship  of  the  luminary  were  held  in 
the  Quauhquauhtinchan  (House  of  the  Eagles),  an 
armoury  set  apart  for  the  regiment  of  that  name.  On 
March  17  and  December  i  and  2,  at  the  ceremonies 
known  as  Nauhollin  (The  Four  Motions — alluding  to 
the  quivering  appearance  of  the  sun's  rays),  the  warriors 
gathered  in  this  hall  for  the  purpose  of  despatching  a 
messenger  to  their  lord  the  sun.  High  up  on  the  wall 
of  the  principal  court  was  a  great  symbolic  representation 
of  the  orb,  painted  upon  a  brightly  coloured  cotton  hang- 
ing. Before  this  copal  and  other  fragrant  gums  and  spices 
were  burned  four  times  a  day.  The  victim,  a  war-captive, 
was  placed  at  the  foot  of  a  long  staircase  leading  up  to 
the  Quauhxicalli  (Cup  of  the  Eagles),  the  name  of 
the  stone  on  which  he  was  to  be  sacrificed.  He  was 
clothed  in  red  striped  with  white  and  wore  white  plumes 
in  his  hair — colours  symbolical  of  the  sun — while  he 
bore  a  staff  decorated  with  feathers  and  a  shield  covered 
with  tufts  of  cotton.  He  also  carried  a  bundle  of  eagle's 
feathers  and  some  paint  on  his  shoulders,  to  enable  the 
sun,  to  whom  he  was  the  emissary,  to  paint  his  face. 
He  was  then  addressed  by  the  officiating  priest  in  the 
following  terms  :  "  Sir,  we  pray  you  go  to  our  god  the 
sun,  and  greet  him  on  our  behalf;  tell  him  that  his  sons 

99 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

and  warriors  and  chiefs  and  those  who  remain  here  beg 
of  him  to  remember  them  and  to  favour  them  from 
that  place  where  he  is,  and  to  receive  this  small  offering 
which  we  send  him.  Give  him  this  staff  to  help  him 
on  his  journey,  and  this  shield  for  his  defence,  and  all 
the  rest  that  you  have  in  this  bundle."  The  victim, 
having  undertaken  to  carry  the  message  to  the  sun- 
god,  was  then  despatched  upon  his  long  journey. 

A  Quauhxicalli  is  preserved  in  the  National  Museum 
of  Mexico.  It  consists  of  a  basaltic  mass,  circular  in 
form,  on  which  are  shown  in  sculpture  a  series  of 
groups  representing  Mexican  warriors  receiving  the 
submission  of  war-captives.  The  prisoner  tenders  a 
flower  to  his  captor,  symbolical  of  the  life  he  is  about 
to  offer  up,  for  lives  were  the  "flowers"  offered  to  the 
gods,  and  the  campaign  in  which  these  "blossoms" 
were  captured  was  called  Xochiyayotl  (The  War  of 
Flowers).  The  warriors  who  receive  the  submission 
of  the  captives  are  represented  in  the  act  of  tearing  the 
plumes  from  their  heads.  These  bas-reliefs  occupy  the 
sides  of  the  stone.  The  face  of  it  is  covered  by  a  great 
solar  disc  having  eight  rays,  and  the  surface  is  hollowed 
out  in  the  middle  to  form  a  receptacle  for  blood — the 
"  cup "  alluded  to  in  the  name  of  the  stone.  The 
Quauhxicalli  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  temalacatl 
(spindle  stone),  to  which  the  alien  warrior  who  received 
a  chance  of  life  was  secured.  The  gladiatorial  combat 
gave  the  war-captive  an  opportunity  to  escape  through 
superior  address  in  arms.  The  tcmalacatl  \vzs  somewhat 
higher  than  a  man,  and  was  provided  with  a  platform 
at  the  top,  in  the  middle  of  which  was  placed  a  great 
stone  with  a  hole  in  it  through  which  a  rope  was  passed. 
To  this  the  war-captive  was  secured,  and  if  he  could 
vanquish  seven  of  his  captors  he  was  released.  If  he 
failed  to  do  so  he  was  at  once  sacrificed. 

100 


THE  FEAST  OF  TOTEC 

A  Mexican  Valhalla 

The  Mexican  warriors  believed  that  they  continued 
in  the  service  of  the  sun  after  death,  and,  like  the 
Scandinavian  heroes  in  Valhalla,  that  they  were  admitted 
to  the  dwelling  of  the  god,  where  they  shared  all  the 
delights  of  his  diurnal  round.  The  Mexican  warrior 
dreaded  to  die  in  his  bed,  and  craved  an  end  on  the  field 
of  battle.  This  explains  the  desperate  nature  of  their 
resistance  to  the  Spaniards  under  Cortes,  whose  officers 
stated  that  the  Mexicans  seemed  to  desire  to  die 
fighting.  After  death  they  believed  that  they  would 
partake  of  the  cannibal  feasts  offered  up  to  the  sun 
and  imbibe  the  juice  of  flowers. 

The  Feast  of  Totec 

The  chief  of  the  festivals  to  the  sun  was  that  held  in 
spring  at  the  vernal  equinox,  before  the  representa- 
tion of  a  deity  known  as  Totec  (Our  Great  Chief). 
Although  Totec  was  a  solar  deity  he  had  been  adopted 
from  the  people  of  an  alien  state,  the  Zapotecs  of 
Zalisco,  and  is  therefore  scarcely  to  be  regarded  as  the 
principal  sun-god.  His  festival  was  celebrated  by  the 
symbolical  slaughter  of  all  the  other  gods  for  the  pur- 
pose of  providing  sustenance  to  the  sun,  each  or  the 
gods  being  figuratively  slain  in  the  person  of  a  victim. 
Totec  was  attired  in  the  same  manner  as  the  warrior 
despatched  twice  a  year  to  assure  the  sun  of  the  loyalty 
of  the  Mexicans.  The  festival  appears  to  have  been 
primarily  a  seasonal  one,  as  bunches  of  dried  maize 
were  offered  to  Totec.  But  its  larger  meaning  is  obvious. 
It  was,  indeed,  a  commemoration  of  the  creation  of  the 
sun.  This  is  proved  by  the  description  of  the  image  of 
Totec,  which  was  robed  and  equipped  as  the  solar 
traveller,  by  the  solar  disc  and  tables  of  the  sun's 

1 01 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
progress  carved  on  the  altar  employed  in  the  ceremony, 
and  by  the  robes  of  the  victims,  who  were  dressed  tc 
represent  dwellers  in  the  sun-god's  halls.  Perhaps 
Totec,  although  of  alien  origin,  was  the  only  deity 
possessed  by  the  Mexicans  who  directly  represented 
the  sun.  As  a  borrowed  god  he  would  have  but 
a  minor  position  in  the  Mexican  pantheon,  but  again 
as  the  only  sun-god  whom  it  was  necessary  to  bring 
into  prominence  during  a  strictly  solar  festival  he 
would  be  for  the  time,  of  course,  a  very  important 
deity  indeed. 

Tepeyollotl 

Tepeyollotl  means  Heart  of  the  Mountain,  and 
evidently  alludes  to  a  deity  whom  the  Nahua  con- 
nected with  seismic  disturbances  and  earthquakes.  By 
the  interpreter  of  the  Codex  Telleriano-Remensis  he 
is  called  Tepeolotlec,  an  obvious  distortion  of  his  real 
name.  The  interpreter  of  the  codex  states  that  his 
name  "refers  to  the  condition  of  the  earth  after  the 
flood.  The  sacrifices  of  these  thirteen  days  were  not 
good,  and  the  literal  translation  of  their  name  is  *  dirt 
sacrifices.'  They  caused  palsy  and  bad  humours.  .  .  . 
This  Tepeolotlec  was  lord  of  these  thirteen  days.  In 
them  were  celebrated  the  feast  to  the  jaguar,  and  the 
last  four  preceding  days  were  days  of  fasting.  .  .  . 
Tepeolotlec  means  the  *  Lord  of  Beasts.'  The  four 
feast  days  were  in  honour  of  the  Suchiquezal,  who  was 
the  man  that  remained  behind  on  the  earth  upon  which 
we  now  live.  This  Tepeolotlec  was  the  same  as  the 
echo  of  the  voice  when  it  re-echoes  in  a  valley  from  one 
mountain  to  another.  This  name  'jaguar  '  is  given  to 
the  earth  because  the  jaguar  is  the  boldest  animal,  and 
the  echo  which  the  voice  awakens  in  the  mountains  is  a 
survival  of  the  flood,  it  is  said." 

102 


FATHER  AND  MOTHER  GODS 
From  this  we  can  sec  that  Tepeyollotl  is  a  deity  of 
the  earth  pure  and  simple,  a  god  of  desert  places.  It 
is  certain  that  he  was  not  a  Mexican  god,  or  at  least 
was  not  of  Nahua  origin,  as  he  is  mentioned  by  none 
of  those  writers  who  deal  with  Nahua  traditions, 
and  we  must  look  for  him  among  the  Mixtecs  and 
Zapotecs. 

Macuilxochitl,  or  Xochipilli 

This  deity,  whose  names  mean  Five-Flower  and 
Source  of  Flowers,  was  regarded  as  the  patron  of  luck 
in  gaming.  He  may  have  been  adopted  by  the  Nahua 
from  the  Zapotecs,  but  the  converse  may  be  equally 
true.  The  Zapotecs  represented  him  with  a  design  re- 
sembling a  butterfly  about  the  mouth,  and  a  many- 
coloured  face  which  looks  out  of  the  open  jaws  of  a 
bird  with  a  tall  and  erect  crest.  The  worship  of  this 
god  appears  to  have  been  very  widespread.  Sahagun 
says  of  him  that  a  fete  was  held  in  his  honour,  which 
was  preceded  by  a  rigorous  fast.  The  people  covered 
themselves  with  ornaments  and  jewels  symbolic  of  the 
deity,  as  if  they  desired  to  represent  him,  and  dancing 
and  singing  proceeded  gaily  to  the  sound  of  the  drum. 
Offerings  of  the  blood  of  various  animals  followed, 
and  specially  prepared  cakes  were  submitted  to  the  god. 
This  simple  fare,  however,  was  later  followed  by  human 
sacrifices,  rendered  by  the  notables,  who  brought  certain 
of  their  slaves  for  immolation.  This  completed  the 
festival. 

Father  and  Mother  Gods 

The  Nahua  believed  that  Ometecutli  and  Omeciuatl 
were  the  father  and  mother  of  the  human  species.  The 
names  signify  Lords  of  Duality  or  Lords  of  the  Two 
Sexes.  They  were  also  called  Tonacatecutli  and  Tona- 

103 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

caciuatl  (Lord  and  Lady  of  Our  Flesh,  or  of  Subsistence). 
They  were  in  fact  regarded  as  the  sexual  essence  of  the 
creative  deity,  or  perhaps  more  correctly  of  deity  in 
general.  They  occupied  the  first  place  in  the  Nahua 
calendar,  to  signify  that  they  had  existed  from  the 
beginning,  and  they  are  usually  represented  as  being 
clothed  in  rich  attire.  Ometecutli  (a  literal  translation 
of  his  name  is  Two-Lord)  is  sometimes  identified  with 
the  sky  and  the  fire-god,  the  female  deity  represent- 
ing the  earth  or  water — conceptions  similar  to  those 
respecting  Kronos  and  Gaea.  We  refer  again  to 
these  supreme  divinities  in  the  following  chapter  (see 
p.  1 1 8). 

The  Pulque-Gods 

When  a  man  was  intoxicated  with  the  native  Mexican 
drink  of  pulque,  a  liquor  made  from  the  juice  of  the 
Agave  Americana ,  he  was  believed  to  be  under  the 
influence  of  a  god  or  spirit.  The  commonest  form 
under  which  the  drink-god  was  worshipped  was  the 
rabbit,  that  animal  being  considered  to  be  utterly  devoid 
of  sense.  This  particular  divinity  was  known  as  Ome- 
tochtli.  The  scale  of  debauchery  which  it  was  desired 
to  reach  was  indicated  by  the  number  of  rabbits  wor- 
shipped, the  highest  number,  four  hundred,  represent- 
ing the  most  extreme  degree  of  intoxication.  The 
chief  pulque-gods  apart  from  these  were  Patecatl  and 
Tequechmecauiani.  If  the  drunkard  desired  to  escape 
the  perils  of  accidental  hanging  during  intoxication,  it 
was  necessary  to  sacrifice  to  the  latter,  but  if  death  by 
drowning  was  apprehended  Teatlahuiani,  the  deity  who 
harried  drunkards  to  a  watery  grave,  was  placated.  If 
the  debauchee  wished  his  punishment  not  to  exceed 
a  headache,  Quatlapanqui  (The  Head-splitter)  was 
sacrificed  to,  or  else  Papaztac  (The  Nerveless).  Each 
104 


THE  PULQUE-GODS 

trade  or  profession  had  its  own  Ometochtli,  but  for 
the  aristocracy  there  was  only  one  of  these  gods, 
Cohuatzincatl,  a  name  signifying  "  He  who  has  Grand- 
par  en  s."  Several  of  these  drink-gods  had  names  which 
connected  them  with  various  localities  ;  for  example, 
Tepoxtecatl  was  the  pulque-god  of  Tepoztlan.  The 
calendar  day  Ometochtli,  which  means  "Two-Rabbit," 
because  of  the  symbol  which  accompanied  it,  was  under 
the  special  protection  of  these  gods,  and  the  Mexicans 
believed  that  any  one  born  on  that  day  was  almost 
inevitably  doomed  to  become  a  drunkard.  All  the 
pulque-gods  were  closely  associated  with  the  soil, 
and  with  the  earth-goddess.  They  wore  the  golden 
Huaxtec  nose-ornament,  the  yaca-metztti,  of  crescent 
shape,  which  characterised  the  latter,  and  indeed  this 
ornament  was  inscribed  upon  all  articles  sacred  to  the 
pulque-gods.  Their  faces  were  painted  red  and  black,  as 
were  objects  consecrated  to  them,  their  blankets  and 
shields.  After  the  Indians  had  harvested  their  maize 
they  drank  to  intoxication,  and  invoked  one  or  other  of 
these  gods.  On  the  whole  it  is  safe  to  infer  that  they 
were  originally  deities  of  local  husbandry  who  imparted 
virtue  to  the  soil  as  pulque  imparted  strength  and  courage 
to  the  warrior.  The  accompanying  sketch  of  the  god 
Tepoxtecatl  (see  p.  117)  well  illustrates  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  of  the  pulque-god  class.  Here  we 
can  observe  the  face  painted  in  two  colours,  the 
crescent-shaped  nose-ornament,  the  bicoloured  shield, 
the  long  necklace  made  from  the  malinalli  herb,  and  the 
ear-pendants. 

It  is  of  course  clear  that  the  drink-gods  were  of  the 
same  class  as  the  food-gods — patrons  of  the  fruitful 
soil — but  it  is  strange  that  they  should  be  male  whilst 
the  food-gods  are  mostly  female. 


10; 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  Goddesses  of  Mexico:  Metztli 

Metztli,  or  Yohualticitl  (The  Lady  of  Night),  was  the 
Mexican  goddess  of  the  moon.  She  had  in  reality  two 
phases,  one  that  of  a  beneficent  protectress  of  harvests 
and  promoter  of  growth  in  general,  and  the  other  that 
of  a  bringer  of  dampness,  cold,  and  miasmic  airs,  ghosts, 
mysterious  shapes  of  the  dim  half-light  of  night  and 
its  oppressive  silence. 

To  a  people  in  the  agricultural  stage  of  civilisation 
the  moon  appears  as  the  great  recorder  of  harvests.  But 
she  has  also  supremacy  over  water,  which  is  always  con- 
nected by  primitive  peoples  with  the  moon.  Citatli 
(Moon)  and  Atl  (Water)  are  constantly  confounded  in 
Nahua  myth,  and  in  many  ways  their  characteristics 
were  blended.  It  was  Metztli  who  led  forth  Nanahuatl 
the  Leprous  to  the  pyre  whereon  he  perished — a 
reference  to  the  dawn,  in  which  the  starry  sky  of  night 
is  consumed  in  the  fires  of  the  rising  sun. 

Tlazolteotl 

Tlazolteotl  (God  of  Ordure),  or  Tlaelquani  (Filth- 
eater),  was  called  by  the  Mexicans  the  earth-goddess 
because  she  was  the  eradicator  of  sins,  to  whose  priests 
the  people  went  to  make  confession  so  that  they  might 
be  absolved  from  their  misdeeds.  Sin  was  symbolised 
by  the  Mexicans  as  excrement.  Confession  covered 
only  the  sins  of  immorality.  But  if  Tlazolteotl  was 
the  goddess  of  confession,  she  was  also  the  patroness  of 
desire  and  luxury.  It  was,  however,  as  a  deity  whose 
chief  office  was  the  eradication  of  human  sin  that  she 
was  pre-eminent.  The  process  by  which  this  was  sup- 
posed to  be  effected  is  quaintly  described  by  Sahagun  in 
the  twelfth  chapter  of  his  first  book.  The  penitent 
addressed  the  confessor  as  follows  :  "  Sir,  I  desire  to 
1 06 


The  Penitent'addressing  the  Fire 
William  Sewell 


1 06 


TLAZOLTEOTL 

approach  that  most  powerful  god,  the  protector  of  all, 
that  is  to  say,  Tezcatlipoca.  1  desire  to  tell  him  my  sins 
in  secret."  The  confessor  replied  :  "  Be  happy,  my 
son  :  that  which  thou  wishest  to  do  will  be  to  thy 
good  and  advantage."  The  confessor  then  opened  the 
divinatory  book  known  as  the  Tonalamatl  (that  is,  the 
Book  of  the  Calendar)  and  acquainted  the  applicant  with 
the  day  which  appeared  the  most  suitable  for  his  con- 
fession. The  day  having  arrived,  the  penitent  provided 
himself  with  a  mat,  copal  gum  to  burn  as  incense,  and 
wood  whereon  to  burn  it.  If  he  was  a  person  high  in 
office  the  priest  repaired  to  his  house,  but  in  the  case 
of  lesser  people  the  confession  took  place  in  the 
dwelling  or  the  priest.  Having  lighted  the  fire  and 
burned  the  incense,  the  penitent  addressed  the  fire  in 
the  following  terms  :  "  Thou,  lord,  who  art  the  father 
and  mother  of  the  gods,  and  the  most  ancient  of  them 
all,  thy  servant,  thy  slave  bows  before  thee.  Weeping, 
he  approaches  thee  in  great  distress.  He  comes  plunged 
in  grief,  because  he  has  been  buried  in  sin,  having 
backslidden,  and  partaken  of  those  vices  and  evil 
delights  which  merit  death.  O  master  most  compas- 
sionate, who  art  the  upholder  and  defence  of  all,  receive 
the  penitence  and  anguish  of  thy  slave  and  vassal." 

This  prayer  having  concluded,  the  confessor  then 
turned  to  the  penitent  and  thus  addressed  him  :  "  My 
son,  thou  art  come  into  the  presence  of  that  god  who 
is  the  protector  and  upholder  of  all ;  thou  art  come  to 
him  to  confess  thy  evil  vices  and  thy  hidden  unclean- 
nesses  ;  thou  art  come  to  him  to  unbosom  the  secrets 
of  thy  heart.  Take  care  that  thou  omit  nothing  from 
the  catalogue  of  thy  sins  in  the  presence  of  our  lord  who 
is  called  Tezcatlipoca.  It  is  certain  that  thou  art  before 
him  who  is  invisible  and  impalpable,  thou  who  art  not 
worthy  to  be  seen  before  him,  or  to  speak  with  him.  .  .  ." 

107 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
The  allusions  to  Tezcatlipoca  arc,  of  course,  to  him 
in  the  shape  of  Tlazolteotl.  Having  listened  to  a 
sermon  by  the  confessor,  the  penitent  then  confessed 
his  misdeeds,  after  which  the  confessor  said  :  "  My  son, 
thou  hast  before  our  lord  god  confessed  in  his  presence 
thy  evil  actions.  1  wish  to  say  in  his  name  that  thou 
hast  an  obligation  to  make.  At  the  time  when  the 
goddesses  called  Ciuapipiltin  descend  to  earth  during 
the  celebration  of  the  feast  of  the  goddesses  of  carnal 
things,  whom  they  name  Ixcuiname,  thou  shalt  fast 
during  four  days,  punishing  thy  stomach  and  thy 
mouth.  When  the  day  of  the  feast  of  the  Ixcuiname 
arrives  thou  shalt  scarify  thy  tongue  with  the  small 
thorns  of  the  osier  [called  teocakacatl  or  tlazotf],  and 
if  that  is  not  sufficient  thou  shalt  do  likewise  to 
thine  ears,  the  whole  for  penitence,  for  the  remission  of 
thy  sin,  and  as  a  meritorious  act.  Thou  wilt  apply  to 
thy  tongue  the  middle  of  a  spine  of  maguey,  and  thou 
wilt  scarify  thy  shoulders.  .  ,  That  done,  thy  sins 
will  be  pardoned." 

If  the  sins  of  the  penitent  were  not  very  grave  the 
priest  would  enjoin  upon  him  a  fast  of  a  more  or  less 
prolonged  nature.  Only  old  men  confessed  crimes  in 
•ucncribiiS)  as  the  punishment  for  such  was  death,  and 
younger  men  had  no  desire  to  risk  the  penalty  involved, 
although  the  priests  were  enjoined  to  strict  secrecy. 

Father  Burgoa  describes  very  fully  a  ceremony  of 
this  kind  which  came  under  his  notice  in  1652  in  the 
Zapotec  village  of  San  Francisco  de  Cajonos.  He  en- 
countered on  a  tour  of  inspection  an  old  native  cacique^ 
or  chief,  of  great  refinement  of  manners  and  of  a  stately 
presence,  who  dressed  in  costly  garments  after  the 
Spanish  fashion,  and  who  was  regarded  by  the  Indians 
with  much  veneration.  This  man  came  to  the  priest 
for  the  purpose  of  reporting  upon  the  progress  in 


TLAZOLTEOTL 

things  spiritual  *nd  temporal  in  his  village.  Burgoa 
recognised  his  urbanity  and  wonderful  command  of  the 
Spanish  language,  but  perceived  by  certain  signs  that  he 
had  been  taught  to  look  for  by  long  experience  that  the 
man  was  a  pagan.  He  communicated  his  suspicions  to 
the  vicar  of  the  village,  but  met  with  such  assurances  of 
the  cacique  s  soundness  of  faith  that  he  believed  himself 
to  be  in  error  for  once.  Shortly  afterwards,  however,  a 
wandering  Spaniard  perceived  the  chief  in  a  retired 
place  in  the  mountains  performing  idolatrous  ceremonies, 
and  aroused  the  monks,  two  of  whom  accompanied  him 
to  the  spot  where  the  cacique  had  been  seen  indulging 
in  his  heathenish  practices.  They  found  on  the  altar 
"  feathers  of  many  colours,  sprinkled  with  blood  which 
the  Indians  had  drawn  from  the  veins  under  their 
tongues  and  behind  their  ears,  incense  spoons  and 
remains  of  copal,  and  in  the  middle  a  horrible  stone 
figure,  which  was  the  god  to  whom  they  had  offered 
this  sacrifice  in  expiation  of  their  sins,  while  they  made 
their  confessions  to  the  blasphemous  priests,  and  cast 
off  their  sins  in  the  following  manner :  they  had 
woven  a  kind  of  dish  out  of  a  strong  herb,  specially 
gathered  for  this  purpose,  and  casting  this  before  the 
priest,  said  to  him  that  they  came  to  beg  mercy  of  their 
god,  and  pardon  for  their  sins  that  they  had  committed 
during  that  year,  and  that  they  brought  them  all 
carefully  enumerated.  They  then  drew  out  of  a  cloth 
pairs  of  thin  threads  made  of  dry  maize  husks,  that 
they  had  tied  two  by  two  in  the  middle  with  a  knot,  by 
which  they  represented  their  sins.  They  laid  these 
threads  on  the  dishes  of  grass,  and  over  them  pierced 
their  veins,  and  let  the  blood  trickle  upon  them,  and 
the  priest  took  these  offerings  to  the  idol,  and  in  a  long 
speech  he  begged  the  god  to  forgive  these,  his  sons, 
their  sins  which  were  brought  to  him,  and  to  permit 

109 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

them  to  be  joyful  and  hold  feasts  to  him  as  their  god 
and  lord.  Then  the  priest  came  back  to  those  who  had 
confessed,  delivered  a  long  discourse  on  the  ceremonies 
they  had  still  to  perform,  and  told  them  that  the  god 
had  pardoned  them  and  that  they  might  be  glad  again 
and  sin  anew." 

Chalchihuitlicue 

This  goddess  was  the  wife  of  Tlaloc,  the  god 
of  rain  and  moisture.  The  name  means  Lady  of 
the  Emerald  Robe,  in  allusion  to  the  colour  of  the 
element  over  which  the  deity  partly  presided.  She  was 
specially  worshipped  by  the  water-carriers  of  Mexico, 
and  all  those  whose  avocation  brought  them  into 
contact  with  water.  Her  costume  was  peculiar  and 
interesting.  Round  her  neck  she  wore  a  wonderful 
collar  of  precious  stones,  from  which  hung  a  gold 
pendant.  She  was  crowned  with  a  coronet  of  blue 
paper,  decorated  with  green  feathers.  Her  eyebrows 
were  of  turquoise,  set  in  as  mosaic,  and  her  garment  was 
a  nebulous  blue-green  in  hue,  recalling  the  tint  of  sea- 
water  in  the  tropics.  The  resemblance  was  heightened 
by  a  border  of  sea-flowers  or  water-plants,  one  of  which 
she  also  carried  in  her  left  hand,  whilst  in  her  right  she 
bore  a  vase  surmounted  by  a  cross,  emblematic  of  the 
four  points  of  the  compass  whence  comes  the  rain. 

Mizcoatl 

Mixcoatl  was  the  Aztec  god  of  the  chase,  and  was 
probably  a  deity  of  the  Otomi  aborigines  of  Mexico. 
The  name  means  Cloud  Serpent,  and  this  originated 
the  idea  that  Mixcoatl  was  a  representation  of  the 
tropical  whirlwind.  This  is  scarcely  correct,  however, 
as  the  hunter-god  is  identified  with  the  tempest  and 
thunder-cloud,  and  the  lightning  is  supposed  to 
no 


Cloud  Serpent,  the  Hunter-God 

Gilbert  James 


CAMAXTLI 

represent  his  arrows.  Like  many  other  gods  of  the 
chase,  he  is  figured  as  having  the  characteristics  of  a 
deer  or  rabbit.  He  is  usually  depicted  as  cany'ng 
a  sheaf  of  arrows,  to  typify  thunderbolts.  It  may  be 
that  Mixcoatl  was  an  air  and  thunder  deity  of  the 
Otomi,  older  in  origin  than  either  Quetzalcoatl  or 
Tezcatlipoca,  and  that  his  inclusion  in  the  Nahua 
pantheon  becoming  necessary  in  order  to  quieten 
Nahua  susceptibilities,  he  received  the  status  of  god 
of  the  chase.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Mexicans, 
unlike  the  Peruvians,  who  adopted  many  foreign  gods 
for  political  purposes,  had  little  regard  for  the  feelings 
of  other  races,  and  only  accepted  an  alien  deity  into  the 
native  circle  for  some  good  reason,  most  probably 
because  they  noted  the  omission  of  the  figure  in  their 
own  divine  system.  Or,  again,  dread  of  a  certain 
foreign  god  might  force  them  to  adopt  him  as  their 
own  in  the  hope  of  placating  him.  Their  worship  of 
Quetzalcoatl  is  perhaps  an  instance  of  this. 

Camaxtli 

This  deity  was  the  war-god  of  the  Tlascalans, 
who  were  constantly  in  opposition  to  the  Aztecs  of 
Mexico.  He  was  to  the  warriors  of  Tlascala  practically 
what  Huitzilopochtli  was  to  those  of  Mexico.  He 
was  closely  identified  with  Mixcoatl,  and  with  the  god 
of  the  morning  star,  whose  colours  are  depicted  on  his 
face  and  body.  But  in  all  probability  Camaxtli  was  a 
god  of  the  chase,  who  in  later  times  was  adopted  as 
a  god  of  war  because  of  his  possession  of  the  lightning 
dart,  the  symbol  of  divine  warlike  prowess.  In  the 
mythologies  of  North  America  we  find  similar  hunter- 
gods,  who  sometimes  evolve  into  gods  of  war  for  a  like 
reason,  and  again  gods  of  the  chase  who  have  all  the 
appearance  and  attributes  of  the  creatures  hunted. 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Iztlilton 

Ixtlilton  (The  Little  Black  One)  was  the  Mexican 
god  of  medicine  and  healing,  and  therefore  was  often 
alluded  to  as  the  brother  of  Macuilxochitl,  the  god 
of  well-being  or  good  luck.  From  the  account  of  the 
general  appearance  of  his  temple — an  edifice  of  painted 
boards — it  would  seem  to  have  evolved  from  the 
primitive  tent  or  lodge  of  the  medicine-man,  or  shaman. 
It  contained  several  water-jars  called  tlilatl (black  water), 
the  contents  of  which  were  administered  to  children  in 
bad  health.  The  parents  of  children  who  benefited  from 
the  treatment  bestowed  a  feast  on  the  deity,  whose  idol 
was  carried  to  the  residence  of  the  grateful  father, 
where  ceremonial  dances  and  oblations  were  made 
before  it.  It  was  then  thought  that  Ixtlilton  descended 
to  the  courtyard  to  open  fresh  jars  of  pulque  liquor  pro- 
vided for  the  feasters,  and  the  entertainment  concluded 
by  an  examination  by  the  Aztec  ./Esculapius  of  such  of 
the  pulque  jars  dedicated  to  his  service  as  stood  in-the 
courtyard  for  everyday  use.  Should  these  be  found  in 
an  unclean  condition,  it  was  understood  that  the  master 
of  the  house  was  a  man  of  evil  life,  and  he  was  presented 
by  the  priest  with  a  mask  to  hide  his  face  from  his 
scoffing  friends. 

Omacatl 

Omacatl  was  the  Mexican  god  of  festivity  and  joy. 
The  name  signifies  Two  Reeds.  He  was  worshipped 
chiefly  by  bon-vivants  and  the  rich,  who  celebrated  him 
in  splendid  feasts  and  orgies.  The  idol  of  the  deity 
was  invariably  placed  in  the  chamber  where  these 
functions  were  to  take  place,  and  the  Aztecs  were 
known  to  regard  it  as  a  heinous  offence  if  anything 
derogatory  to  the  god  were  performed  during  the  con- 


OPOCHTLI 

vivial  ceremony,  or  if  any  omission  were  made  from 
the  prescribed  form  which  these  gatherings  usually 
took.  It  was  thought  that  if  the  host  had  been  in 
any  way  remiss  Omacatl  would  appear  to  the 
startled  guests,  and  in  tones  of  great  severity  up- 
braid him  who  had  given  the  feast,  intimating  that  he 
would  regard  him  no  longer  as  a  worshipper  and 
would  henceforth  abandon  him.  A  terrible  malady, 
the  symptoms  of  which  were  akin  to  those  of  falling- 
sickness,  would  shortly  afterwards  seize  the  guests  ; 
but  as  such  symptoms  are  not  unlike  those  connected 
with  acute  indigestion  and  other  gas'ric  troubles, 
it  is  probable  that  the  gourmets  who  paid  homage 
to  the  god  of  good  cheer  may  have  been  suffering 
from  a  too  strenuous  instead  of  a  lukewarm  worship 
of  him.  But  the  idea  of  communion  which  under- 
lay so  many  of  the  Mexican  rites  undoubtedly 
entered  into  the  worship  of  Omacatl,  for  prior  to  a 
banquet  in  his  honour  those  who  took  part  in  it 
formed  a  great  bone  out  of  maize  paste,  pretending 
that  it  was  one  of  the  bones  of  the  deity  whose  merry 
rites  they  were  about  to  engage  in.  This  they  devoured, 
washing  it  down  with  great  draughts  of  pulque.  The 
idol  of  Omacatl  was  provided  with  a  recess  in  the 
region  of  the  stomach,  and  into  this  provisions  were 
stuffed.  He  was  represented  as  a  squatting  figure, 
painted  black  and  white,  crowned  with  a  paper  coronet, 
and  hung  with  coloured  paper.  A  flower- fringed  cloak 
and  sceptre  were  the  other  symbols  of  royalty  worn  by 
this  Mexican  Dionysus. 

Opochtli 

Opochtli  (The  Left-handed)  was  the  god  sacred  to 
fishers  and  bird-catchers.  At  one  period  of  Aztec 
history  he  must  have  been  a  deity  of  considerable 

H  113 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

consequence,  since  for  generations  the  Aztecs  were 
marsh-dwellers  and  depended  for  their  daily  food  on 
the  fish  netted  in  the  lakes  and  the  birds  snared  in 
the  reeds.  They  credited  the  god  with  the  invention 
of  the  harpoon  or  trident  for  spearing  fish  and  the 
fishing-rod  and  bird-net.  The  fishermen  and  bird- 
catchers  of  Mexico  held  on  occasion  a  special  feast  in 
honour  of  Opochtli,  at  which  a  certain  liquor  called 
octli  was  consumed.  A  procession  was  afterwards 
formed,  in  which  marched  old  people  who  had 
dedicated  themselves  to  the  worship  of  the  god, 
probably  because  they  could  obtain  no  other  means  of 
subsistence  than  that  afforded  by  the  vocation  of  which 
he  was  tutelar  and  patron.  He  was  represented  as 
a  man  painted  black,  his  head  decorated  with  the 
plumes  of  native  wild  birds,  and  crowned  by  a  paper 
coronet  in  the  shape  of  a  rose.  He  was  clad  in 
green  paper  which  fell  to  the  knee,  and  was  shod  with 
white  sandals.  In  his  left  hand  he  held  a  shield 
painted  red,  having  in  the  centre  a  white  flower  with 
four  petals  placed  crosswise,  and  in  his  right  hanH  he 
held  a  sceptre  in  the  form  of  a  cup. 

Yacatecutli 

Yacatecutli  was  the  patron  of  travellers  of  the 
merchant  class,  who  worshipped  him  by  piling  their 
staves  together  and  sprinkling  on  the  heap  blood  from 
their  noses  and  ears.  The  stafF  of  the  traveller  was  his 
symbol,  to  which  prayer  was  made  and  offerings  of 
flowers  and  incense  tendered. 

The  Aztec  Priesthood 

The  Aztec  priesthood  was  a  hierarchy  in  whose  hands 
resided  a  goodly  portion  of  the  power  of  the  upper 
classes,  especially  that  connected  with  education  and 
"4 


Mexican  Goddess 
Photo  C.  B.  Waite,  Mexico 


114 


EDUCATION 

endowment.  The  mere  fact  that  its  members  possessed 
the  power  of  selecting  victims  for  sacrifice  must  have 
been  sufficient  to  place  them  in  an  almost  unassailable 
position,  and  their  prophetic  utterances,  founded  upon 
the  art  of  divination — so  great  a  feature  in  the  life 
of  the  Aztec  people,  who  depended  upon  it  from  the 
cradle  to  the  grave — probably  assisted  them  in  main- 
taining their  hold  upon  the  popular  imagination.  But 
withal  the  evidence  of  unbiased  Spanish  ecclesiastics, 
such  as  Sahagun,  tends  to  show  that  they  utilised  their 
influence  for  good,  and  soundly  instructed  the  people 
under  their  charge  in  the  cardinal  virtues  ;  "  in  short," 
says  the  venerable  friar,  "  to  perform  the  duties  plainly 
pointed  out  by  natural  religion." 

Priestly  Revenues 

The  establishment  of  the  national  religion  was,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  mediaeval  Church  in  Europe,  based  upon 
a  land  tenure  from  which  the  priestly  class  derived 
a  substantial  though,  considering  their  numbers,  by 
no  means  inordinate  revenue.  The  principal  temples 
possessed  lands  which  sufficed  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  priests  attached  to  them.  There  was,  besides,  a 
system  of  first-fruits  fixed  by  law  for  the  priesthood, 
the  surplusage  therefrom  being  distributed  among  the 
poor. 

Education 

Education  was  entirely  conducted  by  the  priest- 
hood, which  undertook  the  task  in  a  manner  highly 
creditable  to  it,  when  consideration  is  given  to  sur- 
rounding conditions.  Education  was,  indeed,  highly 
organised.  It  was  divided  into  primary  and  secondary 
grades.  Boys  were  instructed  by  priests,  girls  by 
holy  women  or  "nuns."  The  secondary  schools 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

were  called  calmccac,  and  were  devoted  to  the  higher 
branches  of  education,  the  curriculum  including  the 
deciphering  of  the  pinturas,  or  manuscripts,  astrology 
and  divination,  with  a  wealth  of  religious. instruction. 

Orders  of  the  Priesthood 

At  the  head  of  the  Aztec  priesthood  stood  the 
Mexicatl  Teohuatzin  (Mexican  Lord  of  Divine 
Matters).  He  had  a  seat  on  the  emperor's  council, 
and  possessed  power  which  was  second  only  to  the 
royal  authority.  Next  in  rank  to  him  was  the  high- 
priest  of  Quetzalcoatl,  who  dwelt  in  almost  entire 
seclusion,  and  who  had  authority  over  his  own  caste 
only.  This  office  was  in  all  probability  a  relic  from 
"  Toltec "  times.  The  priests  of  Quetzalcoatl  were 
called  by  name  after  their  tutelar  deity.  The  lesser 
grades  included  the  Tlenamacac  (Ordinary  Priests), 
who  were  habited  in  black,  and  wore  their  hair  long, 
covering  it  with  a  kind  of  mantilla.  The  lowest  order 
was  that  of  the  Lamacazton  (Little  Priests),  youths 
who  were  graduating  in  the  priestly  office. 

An  Exacting  Ritual 

The  priesthood  enjoyed  no  easy  existence,  but  led  an 
austere  life  of  fasting,  penance,  and  prayer,  with  constant 
observance  of  an  arduous  and  exacting  ritual,  which  em- 
braced sacrifice,  the  upkeep  of  perpetual  fires,  the  chanting 
of  holy  songs  to  the  gods,  dances,  and  the  superintend- 
ence of  the  ever-recurring  festivals.  They  were  re- 
quired to  rise  during  the  night  to  render  praise,  and  to 
maintain  themselves  in  a  condition  of  absolute  cleanli- 
ness by  means  of  constant  ablutions.  We  have  seen 
that  blood-offering — the  substitution  of  the  part  for 
the  whole — was  a  common  method  of  sacrifice,  and  in 
this  the  priests  engaged  personally  on  frequent  occa- 
1.6 


AN  EXACTING  RITUAL 

sions.  If  the  caste  did  not  spare  the  people  it 
certainly  did  not  spare  itself,  and  its  outlook  was 
perhaps  only  a  shade  more  gloomy  and  fanatical  than 
that  of  the  Spanish  hierarchy  which  succeeded  it  in  the 
land. 


TEPOIT*CATL 


1 1 


CHAPTER  III :  MYTHS  AND  LEGENDS 
OF  THE  ANCIENT  MEXICANS 

The  Mexican  Idea  of  the  Creation 

"  T  N  the  year  and  in  the  day  of  the  clouds,"  writes 
Garcia  in  his  Origin  de  los  Indias^  professing 
1  to  furnish  the  reader  with  a  translation  of  an 
original  Mixtec  picture-manuscript,  "  before  ever  were 
years  or  days,  the  world  lay  in  darkness.  All  things 
were  orderless,  and  a  water  covered  the  slime  and  ooze 
that  the  earth  then  was."  This  picture  is  common  to 
almost  all  American  creation-stories.1  The  red  man  in 
general  believed  the  habitable  globe  to  have  been 
created  from  the  slime  which  arose  above  the  primeval 
waters,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Nahua 
shared  this  belief.  We  encounter  in  Nahua  myth  two 
beings  of  a  bisexual  nature,  known  to  the  Aztecs  as 
Ometecutli-Omeciuatl  (Lords  of  Duality),  who  were 
represented  as  the  deities  dominating  the  genesis  of 
things,  the  beginning  of  the  world.  We  have  already 
become  acquainted  with  them  in  Chapter  II  (see  p. 
104),  but  we  may  recapitulate.  These  beings,  whose 
individual  names  were  Tonacatecutli  and  Tonacaciuatl 
(Lord  and  Lady  of  our  Flesh),  occupy  the  first  place 
in  the  calendar,  a  circumstance  which  makes  it  plain 
that  they  were  regarded  as  responsible  for  the  origin 
of  all  created  things.  They  were  invariably  repre- 
sented as  being  clothed  in  rich,  variegated  garments, 
symbolical  of  light.  Tonacatecutli,  the  male  principle 
of  creation  or  world-generation,  is  often  identified  with 
the  sun-  or  fire-god,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  consider 
him  as  symbolical  of  anything  but  the  sky.  The 
firmament  is  almost  universally  regarded  by  American 

1  See   the  author'i   article  on  "American  Creation-Myths "  in 
the  Eneye/optr<ti<i  of  Religion  and  Etties,  vol.  ir. 


IXTLILXOCHITL'S  CREATION-LEGEND 
aboriginal  peoples  as  the  male  principle  of  the  cosmos, 
in  contradistinction   to  the  earth,  which  they  think  of 
as    possessing   feminine   attributes,   and  which   is  un- 
doubtedly personified  in  this  instance  by  Tonacaciuatl. 

In  North  American  Indian  myths  we  find  the  Father 
Sky  brooding  upon  the  Mother  Earth,  just  as  in  early 
Greek  creation-story  we  see  the  elements  uniting, 
the  firmament  impregnating  the  soil  and  rendering  it 
fruitful.  To  the  savage  mind  the  growth  of  crops  and 
vegetation  proceeds  as  much  from  the  sky  as  from  the 
earth.  Untutored  man  beholds  the  fecundation  of  the 
soil  by  rain,  and,  seeing  in  everything  the  expression  of 
an  individual  and  personal  impulse,  regards  the  genesis 
of  vegetable  growth  as  analogous  to  human  origin. 
To  him,  then,  the  sky  is  the  life-giving  male  principle, 
the  fertilising  seed  of  which  descends  in  rain.  The 
earth  is  the  receptive  element  which  hatches  that  with 
which  the  sky  has  impregnated  her. 

Ixtlilxochitl's  Legend  of  the  Creation 

One  of  the  most  complete  creation-stories  in  Mexican 
mythology  is  that  given  by  the  half-blood  Indian  author 
Ixtlilxochitl,  who,  we  cannot  doubt,  received  it  directly 
from  native  sources.  He  states  that  the  Toltecs  credited 
a  certain  Tloque  Nahuaque  (Lord  of  All  Existence)  with 
the  creation  of  the  universe,  the  stars,  mountains,  and 
animals.  At  the  same  time  he  made  the  first  man 
and  woman,  from  whom  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
are  descended.  This  "first  earth"  was  destroyed  by 
the  "  water-sun."  At  the  commencement  of  the  next 
epoch  the  Toltecs  appeared,  and  after  many  wanderings 
settled  in  Huehue  Tlapallan  (Very  Old  Tlapallan). 
Then  followed  the  second  catastrophe,  that  of  the 
"wind- sun."  The  remainder  of  the  legend  recounts 
how  mighty  earthquakes  shook  the  world  and  destroyed 

119 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
the  earth-giants.  These  earth-giants  (Quinamcs)  were 
analogous  to  the  Greek  Titans,  and  were  a  source  of 
great  uneasiness  to  the  Toltecs.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
old  historians  they  were  descended  from  the  races  who 
inhabited  the  more  northerly  portion  of  Mexico. 

Creation'Story  of  the  Mixtecs 

It  will  be  well  to  return  for  a  moment  to  the  creation- 
story  of  the  Mixtecs,  which,  if  emanating  from  a  some- 
what isolated  people  in  the  extreme  south  of  the 
Mexican  Empire,  at  least  affords  us  a  vivid  picture  of 
what  a  folk  closely  related  to  the  Nahua  race  regarded 
as  a  veritable  account  of  the  creative  process.  When 
the  earth  had  arisen  from  the  primeval  waters,  one  day 
the  deer-god,  who  bore  the  surname  Puma-Snake, 
and  the  beautiful  deer-goddess,  or  Jaguar-Snake, 
appeared.  They  had  human  form,  and  with  their 
great  knowledge  (that  is,  with  their  magic)  they  raised 
a  high  cliff  over  the  water,  and  built  OP  it  fine  palaces 
for  their  dwelling.  On  the  summit  of  this  cliff  they 
laid  a  copper  axe  with  the  edge  upward,  and  on  this 
edge  the  heavens  rested.  The  palaces  stood  in  Upper 
Mixteca,  close  to  Apoala,  and  the  cliff  was  called  Place 
where  the  Heavens  Stood.  The  gods  lived  happily 
together  for  many  centuries,  when  it  chanced  that  two 
little  boys  were  born  to  them,  beautiful  of  form  and 
skilled  and  experienced  in  the  arts.  From  the  days 
of  their  birth  they  were  named  Wind-Nine-Snakc 
(Viento  de  Neuve  Culebras)  and  Wind-Nine-Cave 
(Viento  de  Neuve  Cavernas).  Much  care  was  given 
to  their  education,  and  they  possessed  the  knowledge 
of  how  to  change  themselves  into  an  eagle  or  a  snake, 
to  make  themselves  invisible,  and  even  to  pass  through 
solid  bodies. 

After  a  time  these  youthful  gods  decided  to  make 

120 


Place  where  the  Heavens  Stood  ' ' 
William  Sewell 


2APOTEC  CREATION-MYTH 
an  offering  and  a  sacrifice  to  their  ancestors.  Taking 
incense  vessels  made  of  clay,  they  filled  them  with 
tobacco,  to  which  they  set  fire,  allowing  it  to  smoulder. 
The  smoke  rose  heavenward,  and  that  was  the  first 
offering  (to  the  gods).  Then  they  made  a  garden  with 
shrubs  and  flowers,  trees  and  fruit-bearing  plants,  and 
sweet-scented  herbs.  Adjoining  this  they  made  a  grass- 
grown  level  place  (un  prado\  and  equipped  it  with 
everything  necessary  for  sacrifice.  The  pious  brothers 
lived  contentedly  on  this  piece  of  ground,  tilled  it, 
burned  tobacco,  and  with  prayers,  vows,  and  promises 
they  supplicated  their  ancestors  to  let  the  light  appear, 
to  let  the  water  collect  in  certain  places  and  the  earth 
be  freed  from  its  covering  (water),  for  they  had  no 
more  than  that  little  garden  for  their  subsistence.  In 
order  to  strengthen  their  prayer  they  pierced  their  ears 
and  their  tongues  with  pointed  knives  of  flint,  and 
sprinkled  the  blood  on  the  trees  and  plants  with  a  brush 
of  willow  twigs. 

The  deer-gods  had  more  sons  and  daughters,  but 
there  came  a  flood  in  which  many  of  these  perished. 
After  the  catastrophe  was  over  the  god  who  is  called 
the  Creator  of  All  Things  formed  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  and  restored  the  human  race. 

Zapotec  CreatioivMyth 

Among  the  Zapotecs,  a  people  related  to  the  Mixtecs, 
we  find  a  similar  conception  of  the  creative  process. 
Cozaana  is  mentioned  as  the  creator  and  maker  of  all 
beasts  in  the  valuable  Zapotec  dictionary  of  Father 
Juan  de  Cordova,  and  Huichaana  as  the  creator  of  men 
and  fishes.  Thus  we  have  two  separate  creations  for 
men  and  animals.  Cozaana  would  appear  to  apply  to 
the  sun  as  the  creator  of  all  beasts,  but,  strangely 
enough,  is  alluded  to  in  Cordova's  dictionary  as 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
"  procreatrix,"  whilst  he  is  undoubtedly  a  male  deity. 
Huichaana,  the  creator  of  men  and  fishes,  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  alluded  to  as  "  water,"  or  "  the  element  of 
water,"  and  "  goddess  of  generation."  She  is  certainly 
the  Zapotec  female  part  of  the  creative  agency.  In  the 
Mixtec  creation-myth  we  can  see  the  actual  creator  and 
the  first  pair  of  tribal  gods,  who  were  also  considered 
the  progenitors  of  animals — to  the  savage  equal  inhabi- 
tants of  the  world  with  himself.  The  names  of  the 
brothers  Nine-Snake  and  Nine-Cave  undoubtedly 
allude  to  light  and  darkness,  day  and  night.  It  may  be 
that  these  deities  are  the  same  as  Quetzalcoatl  and 
Xolotl  (the  latter  a  Zapotec  deity),  who  were  regarded  as 
twins.  In  some  ways  Quetzalcoatl  was  looked  upon  as  a 
creator,  and  in  the  Mexican  calendar  followed  the  Father 
and  Mother,  or  original  sexual  deities,  being  placed  in 
the  second  section  as  the  creator  of  the  world  and  man. 

The  Mexican  Noah 

Flood-myths,  curiously  enough,  are  of  more  common 
occurrence  among  the  Nahua  and  kindred  peoples  than 
creation-myths.  The  Abb6  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  has 
translated  one  from  the  Codex  Chimalpopoca,  a  work 
in  Nahuatl  dating  from  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  It  recounts  the  doings  of  the  Mexican  Noah 
and  his  wife  as  follows  : 

"  And  this  year  was  that  of  Ce-calli,  and  on  the 
first  day  all  was  lost.  The  mountain  itself  was  sub- 
merged in  the  water,  and  the  water  remained  tranquil 
for  fifty-two  springs. 

"  Now  toward  the  close  of  the  year  Titlacahuan  had 
forewarned  the  man  named  Nata  and  his  wife  Nena, 
saying,  *  Make  no  more  pulquet  but  straightway  hollow 
out  a  large  cypress,  and  enter  it  when  in  the  month 
Tozoztli  the  water  shall  approach  the  sky.'  They 

122 


A  Flood-Myth  of  the  Nahua 

William  Sewell 


THE  SACRIFICED  PRINCESS 
entered  it,  and  when  Titlacahuan  had  closed  the  door 
he  said,  *  Thou  shalt  eat  but  a  single  ear  of  maize,  and 
thy  wife  but  one  also.' 

"As  soon  as  they  had  finished  eating,  they  went 
forth,  and  the  water  was  tranquil  ;  for  the  log  did  not 
move  any  more  ;  and  opening  it  they  saw  many  fish. 

"  Then  they  built  a  fire,  rubbing  together  pieces  of 
wood,  and  they  roasted  fish.  The  gods  Citallinicue 
and  Citallatonac,  looking  below,  exclaimed,  *  Divine 
Lord,  what  means  that  fire  below  ?  Why  do  they  thus 
smoke  the  heavens  ? ' 

"Straightway  descended  Titlacahuan -Tezcatlipoca, 
and  commenced  to  scold,  saying,  *  What  is  this  fire 
doing  here  ? '  And  seizing  the  fishes  he  moulded  their 
hinder  parts  and  changed  their  heads,  and  they  were 
at  once  transformed  into  dogs." 

The  Myth  of  the  Seven  Caverns 

But  other  legends  apart  from  the  creation-stories  of 
the  world  pure  and  simple  deal  with  the  origin  of 
mankind.  The  Aztecs  believed  that  the  first  men 
emerged  from  a  place  known  as  Chicomoztoc  (The 
Seven  Caverns),  located  north  of  Mexico.  Various 
writers  have  seen  in  these  mythic  recesses  the  fabulous 
"  seven  cities  of  Cibola  "  and  the  Casas  Grandes,  ruins 
of  extensive  character  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Gila, 
and  so  forth.  But  the  allusion  to  the  magical  number 
seven  in  the  myth  demonstrates  that  the  entire  story  is 
purely  imaginary  and  possesses  no  basis  of  fact.  A 
similar  story  occurs  among  the  myths  of  the  Kiche  of 
Guatemala  and  the  Peruvians. 

The  Sacrificed  Princess 

Coming  to  semi-historical  times,  we  find  a  variety 
of  legends  connected  with  the  early  story  of  the  city  of 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
Mexico.  These  for  the  most  part  are  of  a  weird  and 
gloomy  character,  and  throw  much  light  on  the  dark 
Fanaticism  of  a  people  which  could  immolate  its  children 
on  the  altars  of  implacable  gods.  It  is  told  how  after 
the  Aztecs  had  built  the  city  of  Mexico  they  raised  an 
altar  to  their  war-god  Huitzilopochtli.  In  general  the 
lives  rendered  to  this  most  sanguinary  of  deities  were 
those  of  prisoners  of  war,  but  in  times  of  public 
calamity  he  demanded  the  sacrifice  of  the  noblest  in  the 
land.  On  one  occasion  his  oracle  required  that  a  royal 
princess  should  be  offered  on  the  high  altar.  The 
Aztec  king,  either  possessing  no  daughters  of  his  own 
or  hesitating  to  sacrifice  them,  sent  an  embassy  to  the 
monarch  of  Colhuacan  to  ask  for  one  of  his  daughters 
to  become  the  symbolical  mother  of  Huitzilopochtli. 
The  King  of  Colhuacan,  suspecting  nothing  amiss,  and 
highly  flattered  at  the  distinction,  delivered  up  the 
girl,  who  was  escorted  to  Mexico,  where  she  was 
sacrificed  with  much  pomp,  her  skin  being  flayed  off 
to  clothe  the  priest  who  represented  the  deity  in 
the  festival.  The  unhappy  father  was  invited  to  this 
hideous  orgy,  ostensibly  to  witness  his  daughter's 
deification.  In  the  gloomy  chambers  of  the  war-god's 
temple  he  was  at  first  unable  to  mark  the  trend  of  the 
horrid  ritual.  But,  given  a  torch  of  copal-gum,  he 
saw  the  officiating  priest  clothed  in  his  daughter's  skin, 
receiving  the  homage  of  the  worshippers.  Recognising 
her  features,  and  demented  with  grief  and  horror,  he 
fled  from  the  temple,  a  broken  man,  to  spend  the 
remainder  of  his  days  in  mourning  for  his  murdered 
child. 

The  Fugitive  Prince 

One  turns  with  relief  from  such  a  sanguinary  tale 
to  the  consideration  of  the  pleasing  semi-legendary 
"4 


MAXTLA  THE  FIERCE 

accounts  of  Ixtlilxochitl  regarding  the  civilisation  of 
Tezcuco,  Mexico's  neighbour  and  ally.  We  have  seen 
in  the  sketch  of  Nahua  history  which  has  been  given 
how  the  Tecpanecs  overcame  the  Acolhuans  of  Tezcuco 
and  slew  their  king  about  the  year  1418.  Nezahual- 
coyotl  (Fasting  Coyote),  the  heir  to  the  Tezcucan 
throne,  beheld  the  butchery  of  his  royal  father  from  the 
shelter  of  a  tree  close  by,  and  succeeded  in  making  his 
escape  from  the  invaders.  His  subsequent  thrilling 
adventures  have  been  compared  with  those  of  the 
Young  Pretender  after  the  collapse  of  the  "  Forty-five  " 
resistance.  He  had  not  enjoyed  many  days  of  freedom 
when  he  was  captured  by  those  who  had  set  out  in 
pursuit  of  him,  and,  being  haled  back  to  his  native 
city,  was  cast  into  prison.  He  found  a  friend  in  the 
governor  of  the  place,  who  owed  his  position  to  the 
prince's  late  father,  and  by  means  of  his  assistance  he 
succeeded  in  once  more  escaping  from  the  hostile 
Tecpanecs.  For  aiding  Nezahualcoyotl,  however,  the 
governor  promptly  paid  the  penalty  of  death.  The 
royal  family  of  Mexico  interceded  for  the  hunted  youth, 
and  he  was  permitted  to  find  an  asylum  at  the  Aztec 
court,  whence  he  later  proceeded  to  his  own  city  of 
Tezcuco,  occupying  apartments  in  the  palace  where  his 
father  had  once  dwelt.  For  eight  years  he  remained 
there,  existing  unnoticed  on  the  bounty  of  the  Tecpanec 
chief  who  had  usurped  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

Maxtla  the  Fierce 

In  course  of  time  the  original  Tecpanec  conqueror 
was  gathered  to  his  fathers,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Maxtla,  a  ruler  who  could  ill  brook  the  studious 
prince,  who  had  journeyed  to  the  capital  of  the 
Tecpanecs  to  do  him  homage.  He  refused  Nezahual- 
coyotl's  advances  of  friendship,  and  the  latter  was 

125 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
warned  by  a  favourably  disposed  courtier  to  take 
refuge  in  flight.  This  advice  he  adopted,  and  returned 
to  Tezcuco,  where,  however,  Maxtla  set  a  snare  for  his 
life.  A  function  which  took  place  in  the  evening 
afforded  the  tyrant  his  chance.  But  the  prince's  pre- 
ceptor frustrated  the  conspiracy,  by  means  of  substi- 
tuting for  his  charge  a  youth  who  strikingly  resembled 
him.  This  second  failure  exasperated  Maxtla  so  much 
that  he  sent  a  military  force  to  Tezcuco,  with  orders  to 
despatch  Nezahualcoyotl  without  delay.  But  the  same 
vigilant  person  who  had  guarded  the  prince  so  well 
before  became  apprised  of  his  danger  and  advised  him 
to  fly.  To  this  advice,  however,  Nezahualcoyotl  re- 
fused to  listen,  and  resolved  to  await  the  approach  of 
his  enemies. 

A  Romantic  Escape 

When  they  arrived  he  was  engaged  in  the  Mexican 
ball-game  of  tlachtli.  With  great  politeness  he, requested 
them  to  enter  and  to  partake  of  food.  Whilst  they 
refreshed  themselves  he  betook  himself  to  another 
room,  but  his  action  excited  no  surprise,  as  he  could  be 
seen  through  the  open  doorway  by  which  the  apart- 
ments communicated  with  each  other.  A  huge  censer, 
however,  stood  in  the  vestibule,  and  the  clouds  of 
incense  which  arose  from  it  hid  his  movements  from 
those  who  had  been  sent  to  slay  him.  Thus  obscured, 
he  succeeded  in  entering  a  subterranean  passage  which 
led  to  a  large  disused  water-pipe,  through  which  he 
crawled  and  made  his  escape. 

A  Thrilling  Pursuit 

For  a  season  Nezahualcoyotl  evaded  capture  by 
hiding  in  the  hut  of  a  zealous  adherent.  The  hut  was 
searched,  but  the  pursuers  neglected  to  look  below  a 
126 


The  Prince  who  fled  for  his  Life 

Gilbert  James 


126 


THE  DEFEAT  OF  MAXTLA 

heap  of  maguey  fibre  used  for  making  cloth,  under 
which  he  lay  concealed.  Furious  at  his  enemy's  escape, 
Maxtla  now  ordered  a  rigorous  search,  and  a  regular 
battue  of  the  country  round  Tezcuco  was  arranged.  A 
large  reward  was  offered  for  the  capture  of  Nezahual- 
coyotl  dead  or  alive,  along  with  a  fair  estate  and  the 
hand  of  a  noble  lady,  and  the  unhappy  prince  was  forced 
to  seek  safety  in  the  mountainous  country  between 
Tezcuco  and  Tlascala.  He  became  a  wretched  outcast, 
a  pariah  lurking  in  caves  and  woods,  prowling  about 
after  nightfall  in  order  to  satisfy  his  hunger,  and  seldom 
having  a  whole  night's  rest,  because  of  the  vigilance  of 
his  enemies.  Hotly  pursued  by  them,  he  was  compelled 
to  seek  some  curious  places  of  concealment  in  order  to 
save  himself.  On  one  occasion  he  was  hidden  by  some 
friendly  soldiers  inside  a  large  drum,  and  on  another 
he  was  concealed  beneath  some  chia  stalks  by  a  girl 
who  was  engaged  in  reaping  them.  The  loyalty  of  the 
Tezcucan  peasantry  to  their  hunted  prince  was  extra- 
ordinary, and  rather  than  betray  his  whereabouts  to  the 
creatures  of  Maxtla  they  on  many  occasions  suffered 
torture,  and  even  death  itself.  At  a  time  when  his 
affairs  appeared  most  gloomy,  however,  Nezahualcoyotl 
experienced  a  change  of  fortune.  The  tyrannous 
Maxtla  had  rendered  himself  highly  unpopular  by  his 
many  oppressions,  and  the  people  in  the  territories  he 
had  annexed  were  by  no  means  contented  under  his  rule. 

The  Defeat  of  Maxtla 

These  malcontents  decided  to  band  themselves 
together  to  defy  the  tyrant,  and  offered  the  command 
of  the  force  thus  raised  to  Nezahualcoyotl.  This  he 
accepted,  and  the  Tecpanec  usurper  was  totally 
defeated  in  a  general  engagement.  Restored  to  the 
throne  of  his  fathers,  Nezahualcoyotl  allied  himself 

1*7 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
with  Mexico,  and  with  the  assistance  of  its  monarch 
completely  routed  the  remaining  force  of  Maxtla,  who 
was   seized  in  the  baths  of  Azcapozalco,  haled  forth 
and  sacrificed,  and  his  city  destroyed. 

The  Solon  of  Anahuac 

Nezahualcoyotl  profited  by  the  hard  experiences  he 
had  undergone,  and  proved  a  wise  and  just  ruler. 
The  code  of  laws  framed  by  him  was  an  exceedingly 
drastic  one,  but  so  wise  and  enlightened  was  his  rule 
that  on  the  whole  he  deserves  the  title  which  has  been 
conferred  upon  him  of  "the  Solon  of  Anahuac."  He 
generously  encouraged  the  arts,  and  established  a 
Council  of  Music,  the  purpose  of  which  was  to 
supervise  artistic  endeavour  of  every  description.  In 
Nezahualcoyotl  Mexico  found,  in  all  probability,  her 
greatest  native  poet.  An  ode  of  his  on  the  mutability 
of  life  displays  much  nobility  of  thought,  and  strikingly 
recalls  the  sentiments  expressed  in  the  verses  of  Omar 
Khayydm. 

Nezahualcoyotl's  Theology 

Nezahualcoyotl  is  said  to  have  erected  a  temple  to 
the  Unknown  God,  and  to  have  shown  a  marked  pre- 
ference for  the  worship  of  one  deity.  In  one  of  his 
poems  he  is  credited  with  expressing  the  following 
exalted  sentiments  :  "  Let  us  aspire  to  that  heaven 
where  all  is  eternal,  and  corruption  cannot  come.  The 
horrors  of  the  tomb  are  the  cradle  of  the  sun,  and  the 
dark  shadows  of  death  are  brilliant  lights  for  the  stars." 
Unfortunately  these  ideas  cannot  be  verified  as  the  un- 
doubted sentiments  of  the  royal  bard  of  Tezcuco,  and 
we  are  regretfully  forced  to  regard  the  attribution  as 
spurious.  We  must  come  to  such  a  conclusion  with 
very  real  disappointment,  as  to  discover  an  untutored 
1*8 


THE  QUEEN  WITH  A  HUNDRED  LOVERS 

and  spontaneous  belief  in  one  god  in  the  midst  of  sur- 
roundings so  little  congenial  to  its  growth  would  have 
been  exceedingly  valuable  from  several  points  of  view. 

The  Poet  Prince 

We  find  Nezahualcoyotl's  later  days  stained  by  an 
act  which  was  unworthy  of  such  a  great  monarch  and 
wise  man.  His  eldest  son,  the  heir  to  the  crown, 
entered  into  an  intrigue  with  one  of  his  father's  wives, 
and  dedicated  many  passionate  poems  to  her,  to  which 
she  replied  with  equal  ardour.  The  poetical  correspond- 
ence was  brought  before  the  king,  who  prized  the 
lady  highly  because  of  her  beauty.  Outraged  in  his 
most  sacred  feelings,  Nezahualcoyotl  had  the  youth 
arraigned  before  the  High  Court,  which  passed  sentence 
of  death  upon  him — a  sentence  which  his  father  per- 
mitted to  be  carried  out.  After  his  son's  execution  he 
shut  himself  up  in  his  palace  for  some  months,  and 
gave  orders  that  the  doors  and  windows  of  the  un- 
happy young  man's  residence  should  be  built  up  so 
that  never  again  might  its  walls  echo  to  the  sound  of 
a  human  voice. 

The  Queen  with  a  Hundred  Lovers 

In  his  History  of  the  Chichimeca  Ixtlilxochitl  tells  the 
following  gruesome  tale  regarding  the  dreadful  fate  of 
a  favourite  wife  of  Nezahualpilli,  the  son  of  Nezahual- 
coyotl :  When  Axaiacatzin,  King  of  Mexico,  and  other 
lords  sent  their  daughters  to  King  Nezahualpilli,  for 
him  to  choose  one  to  be  his  queen  and  lawful  wife, 
whose  son  might  succeed  to  the  inheritance,  she  who 
had  the  highest  claims  among  them,  for  nobility  of 
birth  and  rank,  was  Chachiuhnenetzin,  the  young 
daughter  of  the  Mexican  king.  She  had  been  brought 
up  by  the  monarch  in  a  separate  palace,  with  great 

i  129 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU- 

pomp,  and  with  numerous  attendants,  as  became  the 
daughter  of  so   great   a   monarch.      The  number  of 
servants    attached    to    her    household    exceeded    two 
thousand.      Young  as  she  was,  she  was  exceedingly 
artful  and  vicious  ;    so  that,  finding  herself  alone,  and 
seeing  that  her  people  feared  her  on  account  of  her 
rank  and  importance,  she  began  to  give  way  to  an 
unlimited  indulgence  of  her  power.     Whenever  she 
saw  a  young  man  who  pleased  her  fancy  she  gave  secret 
orders  that  he  should  be  brought  to  her,  and  shortly 
afterwards   he  would   be  put  to  death.      She   would 
then   order   a   statue   or   effigy  of  his    person   to  be 
made,  and,  adorning  it  with  rich  clothing,  gold,  and 
jewellery,   place   it   in    the   apartment   in   which    she 
lived.     The  number  of  statues  of  those  whom  she  thus 
sacrificed  was   so  great   as   to   almost  fill  the   room. 
When    the    king    came   to   visit    her,   and   inquired 
respecting  these  statues,  she  answered  that  they  were 
her  gods  ;  and  he,  knowing  how  strict  the  Mexicans 
were  in  the  worship  of  their  false  deities,  believed  her. 
But,  as  no  iniquity  can  be  long  committed  with  entire 
secrecy,  she   was    finally   found  out  in  this  manner : 
Three  of  the  young  men,  for  some  reason  or  other, 
she  had  left  alive.      Their  names  were  Chicuhcoatl, 
Huitzilimitzin,  and  Maxtla,  one  of  whom  was  lord  of 
Tesoyucan  and  one  of  the  grandees  of  the  kingdom, 
and  the  other  two  nobles  of  high  rank.     It  happened 
that  one  day  the  king  recognised  on  the  apparel  of  one 
of  these  a  very  precious  jewel  which  he  had  given  to 
the  queen  ;  and  although  he  had  no  fear  of  treason  on 
her  part  it  gave  him  some  uneasiness.     Proceeding  to 
visit  her  that  night,  her  attendants  told  him  she  was 
asleep,  supposing  that  the  king  would  then  return,  as 
he   had  done  at  other  times.     But  the  affair  of  the 
jewel   made   him    insist   on   entering  the  chamber  in 
130 


The  Princess  and  the  Statues 
Gilbert  James 


130 


THE  QUEEN  WITH  A  HUNDRED  LOVERS 

which  she  slept  ;  and,  going  to  wake  her,  he  found 
only  a  statue  in  the  bed,  adorned  with  her  hair,  and 
closely  resembling  her.  Seeing  this,  and  noticing 
that  the  attendants  around  were  in  much  trepidation 
and  alarm,  the  king  called  his  guards,  and,  assembling 
all  the  people  of  the  house,  made  a  general  search  for 
the  queen,  who  was  shortly  found  at  an  entertain- 
ment with  the  three  young  lords,  who  were  arrested 
with  her.  The  king  referred  the  case  to  the  judges 
of  his  court,  in  order  that  they  might  make  an 
inquiry  into  the  matter  and  examine  the  parties 
implicated.  These  discovered  many  individuals,  ser- 
vants of  the  queen,  who  had  in  some  way  or  other 
been  accessory  to  her  crimes — workmen  who  had  been 
engaged  in  making  and  adorning  the  statues,  others 
who  had  aided  in  introducing  the  young  men  into  the 
palace,  and  others,  again,  who  had  put  them  to  death 
and  concealed  their  bodies.  The  case  having  been 
sufficiently  investigated,  the  king  despatched  ambassa- 
dors to  the  rulers  of  Mexico  and  Tlacopan,  giving  them 
information  of  the  event,  and  signifying  the  day  on 
which  the  punishment  of  the  queen  and  her  accomplices 
was  to  take  place  ;  and  he  likewise  sent  through  the 
empire  to  summon  all  the  lords  to  bring  their  wives 
and  their  daughters,  however  young  they  might  be,  to 
be  witnesses  of  a  punishment  which  he  designed  for  a 
great  example.  He  also  made  a  truce  with  all  the 
enemies  of  the  empire,  in  order  that  they  might  come 
freely  to  see  it.  The  time  having  arrived,  the  number 
of  people  gathered  together  was  so  great  that,  large 
as  was  the  city  of  Tezcuco,  they  could  scarcely  all  find 
room  in  it.  The  execution  took  place  publicly,  in 
sight  of  the  whole  city.  The  queen  was  put  to  the 
garrotte  (a  method  of  strangling  by  means  of  a  rope 
twisted  round  a  stick),  as  well  as  her  three  gallants  ; 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
and,  from  their  being  persons  of  high  birth,  their  bodies 
were  burned,  together  with  the  effigies  before  men- 
tioned. The  other  parties  who  had  been  accessory  to  the 
crimes,  who  numbered  more  than  two  thousand  persons, 
were  also  put  to  the  garrotte,  and  burned  in  a  pit  made 
for  the  purpose  in  a  ravine  near  a  temple  of  the  Idol  of 
Adulterers.  All  applauded  so  severe  and  exemplary  a 
punishment,  except  the  Mexican  lords,  the  relatives  of 
the  queen,  who  were  much  incensed  at  so  public  an 
example,  and,  although  for  the  time  they  concealed 
their  resentment,  meditated  future  revenge.  It  was 
not  without  reason,  says  the  chronicler,  that  the  king 
experienced  this  disgrace  in  his  household,  since  he  was 
thus  punished  for  an  unworthy  subterfuge  made  use  of 
by  his  father  to  obtain  his  mother  as  a  wife  ! 

This  Nezahualpilli,  the  successor  of  Nezahualcoyotl, 
was  a  monarch  of  scientific  tastes,  and,  as  Torquemada 
states,  had  a  primitive  observatory  erected  in  his  palace. 

The  Golden  Age  of  Tezcuco 

The  period  embraced  by  the  life  of  this  monarch  ahd 
his  predecessor  may  be  regarded  as  the  Golden  Age  of 
Tezcuco,  and  as  semi-mythical.  The  palace  of  Neza- 
hualcoyotl, according  to  the  account  of  Ixtlilxochitl, 
extended  east  and  west  for  1234  yards,  and  for  978  yards 
from  north  to  south.  Enclosed  by  a  high  wall,  it  con- 
tained two  large  courts,  one  used  as  the  municipal 
market-place,  whilst  the  other  was  surrounded  by  ad- 
ministrative offices.  A  great  hall  was  set  apart  for  the 
special  use  of  poets  and  men  of  talent,  who  held  sympo- 
siums under  its  classic  roof,  or  engaged  in  controversy 
in  the  surrounding  corridors.  The  chronicles  of  the 
kingdom  were  also  kept  in  this  portion  of  the  palace. 
The  private  apartments  of  the  monarch  adjoined  this 
College  of  Bards.  They  were  gorgeous  in  the  extreme, 
132 


A  FAIRY  VILLA 

and  their  description  rivals  that  of  the  fabled  Toltec 
city  of  Tollan.  Rare  stones  and  beautifully  coloured 
plaster  mouldings  alternated  with  wonderful  tapestries 
of  splendid  feather-work  to  make  an  enchanting 
display  of  florid  decoration,  and  the  gardens  which 
surrounded  this  marvellous  edifice  were  delightful 
retreats,  where  the  lofty  cedar  and  cypress  over- 
hung sparkling  fountains  and  luxurious  baths.  Fish 
darted  hither  and  thither  in  the  ponds,  and  the 
aviaries  echoed  to  the  songs  of  birds  of  wonderful 
plumage. 

A  Fairy  Villa 

According  to  Ixtlilxochitl,  the  king's  villa  of  Tez- 
cotzinco  was  a  residence  which  for  sheer  beauty  had  no 
equal  in  Persian  romance,  or  in  those  dream-tales  of 
Araby  which  in  childhood  we  feel  to  be  true,  and  in 
later  life  regretfully  admit  can  only  be  known  again  by 
sailing  the  sea  of  Poesy  or  penetrating  the  mist-locked 
continent  of  Dream.  The  account  of  it  which  we  have 
from  the  garrulous  half-blood  reminds  us  of  the  stately 
pleasure-dome  decreed  by  Kubla  Khan  on  the  turbulent 
banks  of  the  sacred  Alph.  A  conical  eminence  was  laid 
out  in  hanging  gardens  reached  by  an  airy  flight  of  five 
hundred  and  twenty  marble  steps.  Gigantic  walls  con- 
tained an  immense  reservoir  of  water,  in  the  midst  of 
which  was  islanded  a  great  rock  carved  with  hieroglyphs 
describing  the  principal  events  in  the  reign  of  Nezahual- 
coyotl.  In  each  of  three  other  reservoirs  stood  a  marble 
statue  of  a  woman,  symbolical  of  one  of  the  three  pro- 
vinces of  Tezcuco.  These  great  basins  supplied  the 
gardens  beneath  with  a  perennial  flow  of  water,  so 
directed  as  to  leap  in  cascades  over  artificial  rockeries  or 
meander  among  mossy  retreats  with  refreshing  whisper, 
watering  the  roots  of  odoriferous  shrubs  and  flowers 

133 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

and  winding  in  and  out  of  the  shadow  of  the  cypress 
woods.  Here  and  there  pavilions  of  marble  arose  over 
porphyry  baths,  the  highly  polished  stone  of  which 
reflected  the  bodies  of  the  bathers.  The  villa  itself 
stood  amidst  a  wilderness  of  stately  cedars,  which 
shielded  it  from  the  torrid  heat  of  the  Mexican  sun. 
The  architectural  design  of  this  delightful  edifice  was 
light  and  airy  in  the  extreme,  and  the  perfume  of  the 
surrounding  gardens  filled  the  spacious  apartments  with 
the  delicious  incense  of  nature.  In  this  paradise  the 
Tezcucan  monarch  sought  in  the  company  of  his  wives 
repose  from  the  oppression  of  rule,  and  passed  the  lazy 
hours  in  gamesome  sport  and  dance.  The  surrounding 
woods  afforded  him  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  and 
art  and  nature  combined  to  render  his  rural  retreat  a 
centre  of  pleasant  recreation  as  well  as  of  repose  and 
refreshment. 

Disillusionment 

That  some  such  palace  existed  on  the  spot  in  question 
it  would  be  absurd  to  deny,  as  its  stupendous  pillars 
and  remains  still  litter  the  terraces  of  Tezcotzinco.  But, 
alas  1  we  must  not  listen  to  the  vapourings  of  the  un- 
trustworthy Ixtlilxochitl,  who  claims  to  have  seen  the 
place.  It  will  be  better  to  turn  to  a  more  modern 
authority,  who  visited  the  site  about  seventy-five  years 
ago,  and  who  has  given  perhaps  the  best  account  of  it. 
He  says  : 

"  Fragments  of  pottery,  broken  pieces  of  obsidian 
knives  and  arrows,  pieces  of  stucco,  shattered  terraces, 
and  old  walls  were  thickly  dispersed  over  its  whole  sur- 
face. We  soon  found  further  advance  on  horseback 
impracticable,  and,  attaching  our  patient  steeds  to  the 
nopal  bushes,  we  followed  our  Indian  guide  on  foot, 
scrambling  upwards  over  rock  tnd  through  tangled 
>34 


DISILLUSIONMENT 

brushwood.  On  gaining  the  narrow  ridge  which  con- 
nects the  conical  hill  with  one  at  the  rear,  we  found  the 
remains  of  a  wall  and  causeway  ;  and,  a  little  higher, 
reached  a  recess,  where,  at  the  foot  of  a  small  precipice, 
overhung  with  Indian  fig  and  grass,  the  rock  had  been 
wrought  by  hand  into  a  flat  surface  of  large  dimensions. 
In  this  perpendicular  wall  of  rock  a  carved  Toltec 
calendar  existed  formerly  ;  but  the  Indians,  finding  the 
place  visited  occasionally  by  foreigners  from  the  capital, 
took  it  into  their  heads  that  there  must  be  a  silver  vein 
there,  and  straightway  set  to  work  to  find  it,  obliterating 
the  sculpture,  and  driving  a  level  beyond  it  into  the 
hard  rock  for  several  yards.  From  this  recess  a  few 
minutes'  climb  brought  us  to  the  summit  of  the  hill. 
The  sun  was  on  the  point  of  setting  over  the  mountains 
on  the  other  side  of  the  valley,  and  the  view  spread 
beneath  our  feet  was  most  glorious.  The  whole  of  the 
lake  of  Tezcuco,  and  the  country  and  mountains  on  both 
sides,  lay  stretched  before  us. 

"  But,  however  disposed,  we  dare  not  stop  long  to 
gaze  and  admire,  but,  descending  a  little  obliquely, 
soon  came  to  the  so-called  bath,  two  singular  basins, 
of  perhaps  two  feet  and  a  half  diameter,  cut  into  a 
bastion-like  solid  rock,  projecting  from  the  general  out- 
line of  the  hill,  and  surrounded  by  smooth  carved  seats 
and  grooves,  as  we  supposed — for  I  own  the  whole 
appearance  of  the  locality  was  perfectly  inexplicable  to 
me.  I  have  a  suspicion  that  many  of  these  horizontal 
planes  and  grooves  were  contrivances  to  aid  their  astro- 
nomical observations,  one  like  that  I  have  mentioned 
having  been  discovered  by  de  Gama  at  Chapultepec. 

"  As  to  Montezuma's  Bath,  it  might  be  his  foot-bath 
if  you  will,  but  it  would  be  a  moral  impossibility  for 
any  monarch  of  larger  dimensions  than  Oberon  to  take 
a  duck  in  it. 

135 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
"The  mountain  bears  the  marks  of  human  industry 
to  its  very  apex,  many  of  the  blocks  of  porphyry  of 
which  it  is  composed  being  quarried  into  smooth  hori- 
zontal planes.  It  is  impossible  to  say  at  present  what 
portion  of  the  surface  is  artificial  or  not,  such  is  the 
state  of  confusion  observable  in  every  part. 

"  By  what  means  nations  unacquainted  with  the  use 
of  iron  constructed  works  of  such  a  smooth  polish,  in 
rocks  of  such  hardness,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  say. 
Many  think  tools  of  mixed  tin  and  copper  were  em- 
ployed ;  others,  that  patient  friction  was  one  of  the 
main  means  resorted  to.  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  real  appropriation  of  these  inexplicable  ruins,  or  the 
epoch  of  their  construction,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but 
the  whole  of  this  hill,  which  I  should  suppose  rises  five 
or  six  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain,  was 
covered  with  artificial  works  of  one  kind  or  another. 
They  are  doubtless  rather  of  Toltec  than  of  Aztec 
origin,  and  perhaps  with  still  more  probability  attribut- 
able to  a  people  of  an  age  yet  more  remote." 

The  Noble  Tlascalan 

As  may  be  imagined  regarding  a  community  where 
human  sacrifice  was  rife,  tales  concerning  those  who 
were  consigned  to  this  dreadful  fate  were  abundant. 
Perhaps  the  most  striking  of  these  is  that  relating  to  the 
noble  Tlascalan  warrior  Tlalhuicole,  who  was  captured 
in  combat  by  the  troops  of  Montezuma.  Less  than  a 
year  before  the  Spaniards  arrived  in  Mexico  war  broke 
out  between  the  Huexotzincans  and  the  Tlascalans,  to 
the  former  of  whom  the  Aztecs  acted  as  allies.  On  the 
battlefield  there  was  captured  by  guile  a  very  valiant 
Tlascalan  leader  called  Tlalhuicole,  so  renowned  for 
his  prowess  that  the  mere  mention  of  his  name  was 
generally  sufficient  to  deter  any  Mexican  hero  from 
136 


THE  NOBLE  TLASGALAN 

attempting  his  capture.  He  was  brought  to  Mexico  in 
a  cage,  and  presented  to  the  Emperor  Montezuma, 
who,  on  learning  of  his  name  and  renown,  gave  him 
his  liberty  and  overwhelmed  him  with  honours.  He 
further  granted  him  permission  to  return  to  his  own 
country,  a  boon  he  had  never  before  extended  to  any 
captive.  But  Tlalhuicole  refused  his  freedom,  and 
replied  that  he  would  prefer  to  be  sacrificed  to  the 
gods,  according  to  the  usual  custom.  Montezuma, 
who  had  the  highest  regard  for  him,  and  prized  his 
life  more  than  any  sacrifice,  would  not  consent  to  his 
immolation.  At  this  juncture  war  broke  out  between 
Mexico  and  the  Tarascans,  and  Montezuma  announced 
the  appointment  of  Tlalhuicole  as  chief  of  the  expedi- 
tionary force.  He  accepted  the  command,  marched 
against  the  Tarascans,  and,  having  totally  defeated  them, 
returned  to  Mexico  laden  with  an  enormous  booty  and 
crowds  of  slaves.  The  city  rang  with  his  triumph. 
The  emperor  begged  him  to  become  a  Mexican  citizen, 
but  he  replied  that  on  no  account  would  he  prove  a 
traitor  to  his  country.  Montezuma  then  once  more 
offered  him  his  liberty,  but  he  strenuously  refused 
to  return  to  Tlascala,  having  undergone  the  disgrace 
of  defeat  and  capture.  He  begged  Montezuma  to 
terminate  his  unhappy  existence  by  sacrificing  4iim  to 
the  gods,  thus  ending  the  dishonour  he  felt  in  living 
on  after  having  undergone  defeat,  and  at  the  same 
time  fulfilling  the  highest  aspiration  of  his  life — to  die 
the  death  of  a  warrior  on  the  stone  of  combat.  Mon- 
tezuma, himself  the  noblest  pattern  of  Aztec  chivalry, 
touched  at  his  request,  could  not  but  agree  with  him 
that  he  had  chosen  the  most  fitting  fate  for  a  hero, 
and  ordered  him  to  be  chained  to  the  stone  of  combat, 
the  blood-stained  temalacatl.  The  most  renowned  of  th« 
Aztec  warriors  were  pitted  against  him,  and  the  emperor 

137 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

himself  graced  the  sanguinary  tournament  with  his 
presence.  Tlalhuicole  bore  himself  in  the  combat  like 
a  lion,  slew  eight  warriors  of  renown,  and  wounded 
more  than  twenty.  But  at  last  he  fell,  covered  with 
wounds,  and  was  haled  by  the  exulting  priests  to  the 
altar  of  the  terrible  war-god  Huitzilopochtli,  to  whom 
his  heart  was  offered  up. 

The  Haunting  Mothers 

It  is  only  occasionally  that  we  encounter  either  the 
gods  or  supernatural  beings  of  any  description  in  Mexican 
myth.  But  occasionally  we  catch  sight  of  such  beings 
as  the  Ciuapipiltin  (Honoured  Women),  the  spirits  of 
those  women  who  had  died  in  childbed,  a  death  highly 
venerated  by  the  Mexicans,  who  regarded  the  woman 
who  perished  thus  as  the  equal  of  a  warrior  who  met 
his  fate  in  battle.  Strangely  enough,  these  spirits  were 
actively  malevolent,  probably  because  the  moon-god- 
dess (who  was  also  the  deity  of  evil  exhalations)  was 
evil  in  her  tendencies,  and  they  were  regarded  as  pos- 
sessing an  affinity  to  her.  It  was  supposed  that  they 
afflicted  infants  with  various  diseases,  and  Mexican 
parents  took  every  precaution  not  to  permit  their  off- 
spring out  of  doors  on  the  days  when  their  influence 
was  believed  to  be  strong.  They  were  said  to  haunt 
the  cross-roads,  and  even  to  enter  the  bodies  of  weakly 
people,  the  better  to  work  their  evil  will.  The  insane 
were  supposed  to  be  under  their  especial  visitation. 
Temples  were  raised  at  the  cross-roads  in  order  to 
placate  them,  and  loaves  of  bread,  shaped  like  butter- 
flies, were  dedicated  to  them.  They  were  repre- 
sented as  having  faces  of  a  dead  white,  and  as  blanching 
their  arms  and  hands  with  a  white  powder  known  as 
tisatl.  Their  eyebrows  were  of  a  golden  hue,  and  their 
raiment  was  that  of  Mexican  ladies  of  the  ruling  class. 


THE  RETURN  OF  PAPANTZIN 

The  Return  of  Papantzin1 

One  of  the  weirdest  legends  in  Mexican  tradition 
recounts  how  Papantzin,  the  sister  of  Montezuma  II, 
returned  from  her  tomb  to  prophesy  to  her  royal 
brother  concerning  his  doom  and  the  fall  of  his  empire 
at  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards.  On  taking  up  the 
reins  of  government  Montezuma  had  married  this 
lady  to  one  of  his  most  illustrious  servants,  the 
governor  of  Tlatelulco,  and  after  his  death  it  would 
appear  that  she  continued  to  exercise  his  almost  vice- 
regal functions  and  to  reside  in  his  palace.  In  course 
of  time  she  died,  and  her  obsequies  were  attended  by 
the  emperor  in  person,  accompanied  by  the  greatest 
personages  of  his  court  and  kingdom.  The  body  was 
interred  in  a  subterranean  vault  of  his  own  palace,  in 
close  proximity  to  the  royal  baths,  which  stood  in  a 
sequestered  part  of  the  extensive  grounds  surrounding 
the  royal  residence.  The  entrance  to  the  vault  was 
secured  by  a  stone  slab  of  moderate  weight,  and  when 
the  numerous  ceremonies  prescribed  for  the  interment 
of  a  royal  personage  had  been  completed  the  emperor  and 
his  suite  retired.  At  daylight  next  morning  one  of  the 
royal  children,  a  little  girl  of  some  six  years  of  age, 
having  gone  into  the  garden  to  seek  her  governess, 
espied  the  Princess  Papan  standing  near  the  baths.  The 
princess,  who  was  her  aunt,  called  to  her,  and  requested 
her  to  bring  her  governess  to  her.  The  child  did  as 
she  was  bid,  but  her  governess,  thinking  that  imagina- 
tion had  played  her  a  trick,  paid  little  attention  to  what 
she  said.  As  the  child  persisted  in  her  statement,  the 
governess  at  last  followed  her  into  the  garden,  where 
she  saw  Papan  sitting  on  one  of  the  steps  of  the  baths. 

1  The  suffix  tzin  after  a  Mexican  name  denotes  either" lord H 
or  "lady,"  according  to  the  sex  of  the  person  alluded  to. 

139 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  sight  of  the  supposed  dead  princess  filled  the  woman 
with  such  terror  that  she  fell  down  in  a  swoon.  The 
child  then  went  to  her  mother's  apartment,  and  detailed 
to  her  what  had  happened.  She  at  once  proceeded  to 
the  baths  with  two  of  her  attendants,  and  at  sight 
of  Papan  was  also  seized  with  affright.  But  the 
princess  reassured  her,  and  asked  to  be  allowed  to 
accompany  her  to  her  apartments,  and  that  the  entire 
affair  should  for  the  present  be  kept  absolutely  secret 
Later  in  the  day  she  sent  for  Tisotzicatzin,  her  major- 
domo,  and  requested  him  to  inform  the  emperor  that 
she  desired  to  speak  with  him  immediately  on  matters 
of  the  greatest  importance.  The  man,  terrified,  begged 
to  be  excused  from  the  mission,  and  Papan  then 
gave  orders  that  her  uncle  Nezahualpilli,  King  of  Tez- 
cuco,  should  be  communicated  with.  That  monarch, 
on  receiving  her  request  that  he  should  come  to  her, 
hastened  to  the  palace.  The  princess  begged  him 
to  see  the  emperor  without  loss  of  time  and  to 
entreat  him  to  come  to  her  at  once.  Montezuma 
heard  his  story  with  surprise  mingled  with  doubt. 
Hastening  to  his  sister,  he  cried  as  he  approached  her  : 
"  Is  it  indeed  you,  my  sister,  or  some  evil  demon  who 
has  taken  your  likeness  ? "  "  It  is  I  indeed,  your 
Majesty,"  she  replied.  Montezuma  and  the  exalted 
personages  who  accompanied  him  then  seated  them- 
selves, and  a  hush  of  expectation  fell  upon  all  as 
they  were  addressed  by  the  princess  in  the  following 
words  : 

"  Listen  attentively  to  what  I  am  about  to  relate  to 
you.  You  have  seen  me  dead,  buried,  and  now  behold 
me  alive  again.  By  the  authority  of  our  ancestors, 
my  brother,  I  am  returned  from  the  dwellings  of 
the  dead  to  prophesy  to  you  certain  things  of  prime 
importance. 
140 


The  King's  Sister  is  shown  the  Valley  of  Dry  Bones 
Gilbert  James 


140 


PAPANTZIN'S  STORY 

Papantzin's  Story 

"  At  the  moment  after  death  I  found  myself  in  a 
spacious  valley,  which  appeared  to  have  neither  com- 
mencement nor  end,  and  was  surrounded  by  lofty 
mountains.  Near  the  middle  I  came  upon  a  road  with 
many  branching  paths.  By  the  side  of  the  valley  there 
flowed  a  river  of  considerable  size,  the  waters  of  which 
ran  with  a  loud  noise.  By  the  borders  of  this  I  saw  a 
young  man  clothed  in  a  long  robe,  fastened  with  a 
diamond,  and  shining  like  the  sun,  his  visage  bright  as 
a  star.  On  his  forehead  was  a  sign  in  the  figure  of  a 
cross.  He  had  wings,  the  feathers  of  which  gave  forth 
the  most  wonderful  and  glowing  reflections  and  colours. 
His  eyes  were  as  emeralds,  and  his  glance  was  modest. 
He  was  fair,  of  beautiful  aspect  and  imposing  presence. 
He  took  me  by  the  hand  and  said  :  'Come  hither. 
It  is  not  yet  time  for  you  to  cross  the  river.  You 
possess  the  love  of  God,  which  is  greater  than  you  know 
or  can  comprehend.'  He  then  conducted  me  through 
the  valley,  where  I  espied  many  heads  and  bones  of 
dead  men.  I  then  beheld  a  number  of  black  folk, 
horned,  and  with  the  feet  of  deer.  They  were  engaged 
in  building  a  house,  which  was  nearly  completed. 
Turning  toward  the  east  for  a  space,  I  beheld  on  the 
waters  of  the  river  a  vast  number  of  ships  manned  by  a 
great  host  of  men  dressed  differently  from  ourselves. 
Their  eyes  were  of  a  clear  grey,  their  complexions 
ruddy,  they  carried  banners  and  ensigns  in  their  hands 
and  wore  helmets  on  their  heads.  They  called  them- 
selves *  Sons  of  the  Sun.'  The  youth  who  conducted 
me  and  caused  me  to  see  all  these  things  said  that  it 
was  not  yet  the  will  of  the  gods  that  I  should  cross 
the  river,  but  that  I  was  to  be  reserved  to  behold  the 
future  with  my  own  eyes,  and  to  enjoy  the  benefits  of 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

the  faith  which  these  strangers  brought  with  them  ; 
that  the  bones  I  beheld  on  the  plain  were  those  of  my 
countrymen  who  had  died  in  ignorance  of  that  faith, 
and  had  consequently  suffered  great  torments  ;  that  the 
house  being  builded  by  the  black  folk  was  an  edifice  pre- 
pared for  those  who  would  fall  in  battle  with  the  sea- 
faring strangers  whom  I  had  seen  ;  and  that  I  was 
destined  to  return  to  my  compatriots  to  tell  them  of 
the  true  faith,  and  to  announce  to  them  what  1  had 
seen  that  they  might  profit  thereby." 

Montezuma  hearkened  to  these  matters  in  silence, 
and  felt  greatly  troubled.  He  left  his  sister's  presence 
without  a  word,  and,  regaining  his  own  apartments, 
plunged  into  melancholy  thoughts. 

Papantzin's  resurrection  is  one  of  the  best  authenti- 
cated incidents  in  Mexican  history,  and  it  is  a  curious 
fact  that  on  the  arrival  of  the  Spanish  Conquistadores  one 
of  the  first  persons  to  embrace  Christianity  and  receive 
baptism  at  their  hands  was  the  Princess  Papan. 


MEXICAN  DEITY 
from  the  Vitnna  Codex 


CHAPTER  IV  :  THE  MAYA  RACE 
AND  MYTHOLOGY 

The  Maya 

IT  was  to  the  Maya — the  people  who  occupied 
the  territory  between  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec 
and  Nicaragua — that  the  civilisation  of  Central 
America  owed  most.  The  language  they  spoke  was 
quite  distinct  from  the  Nahuatl  spoken  by  the  Nahua 
of  Mexico,  and  in  many  respects  their  customs  and 
habits  were  widely  different  from  those  of  the  people 
of  Anahuac.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  latter 
were  the  heirs  of  an  older  civilisation,  that,  indeed, 
they  had  entered  the  valley  of  Mexico  as  savages,  and 
that  practically  all  they  knew  of  the  arts  of  culture  was 
taught  them  by  the  remnants  of  the  people  whom  they 
dispossessed.  It  was  not  thus  with  the  Maya.  Their 
arts  and  industries  were  of  their  own  invention,  and 
bore  the  stamp  of  an  origin  of  considerable  antiquity. 
They  were,  indeed,  the  supreme  intellectual  race  of 
America,  and  on  their  coming  into  contact  with  the 
Nahua  that  people  assimilated  sufficient  of  their  culture 
to  raise  them  several  grades  in  the  scale  of  civilisation. 

"Were  the  Maya  Toltecs? 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  many  antiquarians  see 
in  the  Maya  those  Toltecs  who  because  of  the  inroads  of 
barbarous  tribes  quitted  their  native  land  of  Anahuac 
and  journeyed  southward  to  seek  a  new  home  in  Chiapas 
and  Yucatan.  It  would  be  idle  to  attempt  to  uphold  or 
refute  such  a  theory  in  the  absolute  dearth  of  positive 
evidence  for  or  against  it.  The  architectural  remains 
of  the  older  race  of  Anahuac  do  not  bear  any  striking 
likeness  to  Maya  forms,  and  if  the  mythologies  of  the 
two  peoples  are  in  some  particulars  alike,  that  may  well 

•41 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

be  accounted  for  by  their  mutual  adoption  of  deities  and 
religious  customs.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  distinctly 
noteworthy  that  the  cult  of  the  god  Quetzalcoatl,  which 
was  regarded  in  Mexico  as  of  alien  origin,  had  a  con- 
siderable vogue  among  the  Maya  and  their  allied  races. 

The  Maya  Kingdom 

On  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  (after  the  celebrated 
march  of  Cortes  from  Mexico  to  Central  America)  the 
Maya  were  divided  into  a  number  of  subsidiary  states 
which  remind  us  somewhat  of  the  numerous  little  king- 
doms of  Palestine.  That  these  had  hived  off  from  an 
original  and  considerably  greater  state  there  is  good 
evidence  to  show,  but  internal  dissension  had  played 
havoc  with  the  polity  of  the  central  government  of  this 
empire,  the  disintegration  of  which  had  occurred  at  a 
remote  period.  In  the  semi-historical  legends  of  this 
people  we  catch  glimpses  of  a  great  kingdom,  occasionally 
alluded  to  as  the  "  Kingdom  of  the  Great  Snake,"  or  the 
empire  of  Xibalba,  realms  which  have  been  identified  with 
the  ruined  city-centres  of  Palenque  and  Mitla.  These 
identifications  must  be  regarded  with  caution,  but  the 
work  of  excavation  will  doubtless  sooner  or  later  assist 
theorists  in  coming  to  conclusions  which  will  admit  of 
no  doubt.  The  sphere  of  Maya  civilisation  and  influence 
is  pretty  well  marked,  and  embraces  the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan,  Chiapas,  to  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  on  the 
north,  and  the  whole  of  Guatemala  to  the  boundaries  of 
the  present  republic  of  San  Salvador.  The  true  nucleus 
of  Maya  civilisation,  however,  must  be  looked  for  in 
that  part  of  Chiapas  which  skirts  the  banks  of  the 
Usumacinta  river  and  in  the  valleys  of  its  tributaries. 
Here  Maya  art  and  architecture  reached  a  height  of 
splendour  unknown  elsewhere,  and  in  this  district,  too, 

the  strange  Maya  system  of  writing  had  its  most  skilful 
144 


WHENCE  CAME  THE  MAYA? 

exponents.  Although  the  arts  and  industries  of  the 
several  districts  inhabited  by  people  of  Maya  race  ex- 
hibited many  superficial  differences,  these  are  so  small 
as  to  make  us  certain  of  the  fact  that  the  various  areas 
inhabited  by  Maya  stock  had  all  drawn  their  inspiration 
toward  civilisation  from  one  common  nucleus,  and  had 
equally  passed  through  a  uniform  civilisation  and  drawn 
sap  from  an  original  culture-centre. 

The  Maya  Dialects 

Perhaps  the  most  effectual  method  of  distinguishing 
the  various  branches  of  the  Maya  people  from  one  another 
consists  in  dividing  them  into  linguistic  groups.  The 
various  dialects  spoken  by  the  folk  of  Maya  origin, 
although  they  exhibit  some  considerable  difference,  yet 
display  strongly  that  affinity  of  construction  and  resem- 
blance in  root  which  go  to  prove  that  they  all  emanate 
from  one  common  mother-tongue.  In  Chiapas  the 
Maya  tongue  itself  is  the  current  dialect,  whilst  in 
Guatemala  no  less  than  twenty-four  dialects  are  in  use, 
the  principal  of  which  are  the  Quiche,  or  Kiche,  the 
Kakchiquel,  the  Zutugil,  Coxoh  Choi,  and  Pipil.  These 
dialects  and  the  folk  who  speak  them  are  sufficient  to 
engage  our  attention,  as  in  them  are  enshrined  the  most 
remarkable  myths  and  legends  of  the  race,  and  by  the 
men  who  used  them  were  the  greatest  acts  in  Maya 
history  achieved. 

Whence  Came  the  Maya? 

Whence  came  these  folk,  then,  who  raised  a  civilisa- 
tion by  no  means  inferior  to  that  of  ancient  Egypt, 
which,  if  it  had  had  scope,  would  have  rivalled  in  its 
achievements  the  glory  of  old  Assyria  ?  We  cannot  tell. 
The  mystery  of  its  entrance  into  the  land  is  as  deep  as 
the  mystery  of  the  ancient  forests  which  now  bury  the 

*  '45 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
remnants  of  its  mighty  monuments  and  enclose  its 
temples  in  impenetrable  gloom.  Generations  of  anti- 
quarians have  attempted  to  trace  the  origin  of  this  race 
to  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  China,  Burma.  But  the  manifest 
traces  of  indigenous  American  origin  are  present  in  all 
its  works,  and  the  writers  who  have  beheld  in  these 
likenesses  to  the  art  of  Asiatic  or  African  peoples  have 
been  grievously  misled  by  superficial  resemblances  which 
could  not  have  betrayed  any  one  who  had  studied  Maya 
affinities  deeply. 

Civilisation  of  the  Maya 

At  the  risk  of  repetition  it  is  essential  to  point  out 
that  civilisation,  which  was  a  newly  acquired  thing  with 
the  Nahua  peoples,  was  not  so  with  the  Maya.  They 
were  indisputably  an  older  race,  possessing  institutions 
which  bore  the  marks  of  generations  of  use,  whereas 
the  Nahua  had  only  too  obviously  -just  entered  into 
their  heritage  of  law  and  order.  When  we  first  catch 
sight  of  the  Maya  kingdoms  they  are  in  the  process  of 
disintegration.  Such  strong  young  blood  as  the  virile 
folk  of  Anahuac  possessed  did  not  flow  in  the  veins  of 
the  people  of  Yucatan  and  Guatemala.  They  were  to 
the  Nahua  much  as  the  ancient  Assyrians  were  to  the 
hosts  of  Israel  at  the  entrance  of  the  latter  into  national 
existence.  That  there  was  a  substratum  of  ethnical  and 
cultural  relationship,  however,  it  would  be  impossible  to 
deny.  The  institutions,  architecture,  habits,  even  the 
racial  cast  of  thought  of  the  two  peoples,  bore  such  a 
general  resemblance  as  to  show  that  many  affinities  of 
blood  and  cultural  relationship  existed  between  them. 
But  it  will  not  do  to  insist  too  strongly  upon  these. 
It  may  be  argued  with  great  probability  that  these 
relationships  and  likenesses  exist  because  of  the  influence 
of  Maya  civilisation  upon  Mexican  alone,  or  from  the 
146 


THE  HUASTECA 

inheritance  by  both  Mexican  and  Maya  people  of  a 
still  older  culture  of  which  we  are  ignorant,  and  the 
proofs  of  which  lie  buried  below  the  forests  of  Guate- 
mala or  the  sands  of  Yucatan. 

The  Zapotecs 

The  influence  of  the  Maya  upon  the  Nahua  was 
a  process  of  exceeding  slowness.  The  peoples  who 
divided  them  one  from  another  were  themselves  bene- 
fited by  carrying  Maya  culture  into  Anahuac,  or  rather 
it  might  be  said  that  they  constituted  a  sort  of  filter 
through  which  the  southern  civilisation  reached  the 
northern.  These  peoples  were  the  Zapotecs,  the  Mixtecs, 
and  the  Kuikatecs,  by  far  the  most  important  of  whom 
were  the  first-mentioned.  They  partook  of  the  nature 
and  civilisation  of  both  races,  and  were  in  effect  a  border 
people  who  took  from  and  gave  to  both  Maya  and  Nahua, 
much  as  the  Jews  absorbed  and  disseminated  the  cultures 
of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  They  were,  however,  of  Nahua 
race,  but  their  speech  bears  the  strongest  marks  of 
having  borrowed  extensively  from  the  Maya  vocabulary. 
For  many  generations  these  people  wandered  in  a 
nomadic  condition  from  Maya  to  Nahua  territory, 
thus  absorbing  the  customs,  speech,  and  mythology 
of  each. 

The  Huasteca 

But  we  should  be  wrong  if  we  thought  that  the 
Maya  had  never  attempted  to  expand,  and  had  never 
sought  new  homes  for  their  surplus  population.  That 
they  had  is  proved  by  an  outlying  tribe  of  Maya,  the 
Huasteca,  having  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the  Panuco 
river,  on  the  north  coast  of  Mexico.  The  presence  of 
this  curious  ethnological  island  has  of  course  given 
rise  to  all  sorts  of  queer  theories  concerning  Toltec 

*47 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

relationship,  whereas  it  simply  intimates  that  before  the 
era  of  Nahua  expansion  the  Maya  had  attempted  to 
colonise  the  country  to  the  north  of  their  territories, 
but  that  their  efforts  in  this  direction  had  been  cut  short 
by  the  influx  of  savage  Nahua,  against  whom  they 
found  themselves  unable  to  contend. 

The  Type  of  Maya  Civilisation 

Did  the  civilisation  of  the  Maya  differ,  then,  in  type 
from  that  of  the  Nahua,  or  was  it  merely  a  larger 
expression  of  that  in  vogue  in  Anahuac  ?  We  may 
take  it  that  the  Nahua  civilisation  characterised  the 
culture  of  Central  America  in  its  youth,  whilst  that  of 
the  Maya  displayed  it  in  its  bloom,  and  perhaps  in 
its  senility.  The  difference  was  neither  essential  nor 
radical,  but  may  be  said  to  have  arisen  for  the  most 
part  from  climatic  and  kindred  causes.  The  climate  of 
Anahuac  is  dry  and  temperate,  that  of  Yucatan  and 
Guatemala  is  tropical,  and  we  shall  find  even  such 
religious  conceptions  of  the  two  peoples  as  were  drawn 
from  a  common  source  varying  from  this  very  cause, 
and  coloured  by  differences  in  temperature  and  rainfall. 

Maya  History 

Before  entering  upon  a  consideration  of  the  art, 
architecture,  or  mythology  of  this  strange  and  highly 
interesting  people  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  the 
reader  with  a  brief  sketch  of  their  history.  Such 
notices  of  this  as  exist  in  English  are  few,  and  their 
value  doubtful.  For  the  earlier  history  of  the  people 
of  Maya  stock  we  depend  almost  wholly  upon  tradition 
and  architectural  remains.  The  net  result  of  the 
evidence  wrung  from  these  is  that  the  Maya  civilisation 
was  one  and  homogeneous,  and  that  all  the  separate 
states  must  have  at  one  period  passed  through  a  uniform 
14* 


THE  NUCLEUS  OF  MAYA  POWER 

condition  of  culture,  to  which  they  were  all  equally 
debtors,  and  that  this  is  sufficient  ground  for  the  belief 
that  all  were  at  one  time  beneath  the  sway  of  one 
central  power.  For  the  later  history  we  possess  the 
writings  of  the  Spanish  fathers,  but  not  in  such  pro- 
fusion as  in  the  case  of  Mexico.  In  fact  the  trust- 
worthy original  authors  who  deal  with  Maya  history 
can  almost  be  counted  on  the  fingers  of  one  hand.  We 
are  further  confused  in  perusing  these,  and,  indeed, 
throughout  the  study  of  Maya  history,  by  discovering 
that  many  of  the  sites  of  Maya  cities  are  designated  by 
Nahua  names.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Spanish 
conquerors  were  guided  in  their  conquest  of  the  Maya 
territories  by  Nahua,  who  naturally  applied  Nahuatlac 
designations  to  those  sites  of  which  the  Spaniards  asked 
the  names.  These  appellations  clung  to  the  places  in 
question ;  hence  the  confusion,  and  the  blundering 
theories  which  would  read  in  these  place-names  relics 
of  Aztec  conquest. 

The  Nucleus  of  Maya  Powe* 

As  has  been  said,  the  nucleus  of  Maya  power  and 
culture  is  probably  to  be  found  in  that  part  of  Chiapas 
which  slopes  down  from  the  steep  Cordilleras.  Here 
the  ruined  sites  of  Palenque,  Piedras  Negras,  and 
Ocosingo  are  eloquent  of  that  opulence  of  imagination 
and  loftiness  of  conception  which  go  hand  in  hand  with 
an  advanced  culture.  The  temples  and  palaces  of  this 
region  bear  the  stamp  of  a  dignity  and  consciousness 
of  metropolitan  power  which  are  scarcely  to  be  mis- 
taken, so  broad,  so  free  is  their  architectural  conception, 
so  full  to  overflowing  the  display  of  the  desire  to 
surpass.  But  upon  the  necessities  of  religion  and 
central  organisation  alone  was  this  architectural  artistry 
lavished.  Its  dignities  were  not  profaned  by  its 

H9 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

application  to  mere  domestic  uses,  for,  unless  what  were 
obviously  palaces  are  excepted,  not  a  single  example  of 
Maya  domestic  building  has  survived.  This  is  of 
course  accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
people  were  sharply  divided  into  the  aristocratic  and 
labouring  classes,  the  first  of  which  was  closely 
identified  with  religion  or  kingship,  and  was  housed  in 
the  ecclesiastical  or  royal  buildings,  whilst  those  of  less 
exalted  rank  were  perforce  content  with  the  shelter 
afforded  by  a  hut  built  of  perishable  materials,  the 
traces  of  which  have  long  since  passed  away.  The 
temples  were,  in  fact,  the  nuclei  of  the  towns,  the 
centres  round  which  the  Maya  communities  were 
grouped,  much  in  the  same*  manner  as  the  cities  of 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  clustered  and  grew  around 
the  shadow  of  some  vast  cathedral  or  sheltering  strong- 
hold. 

Early  Race  Movements 

We  shall  leave  the  consideration  of  Maya  tradition, 
until  we  come  to  speak  of  Maya  myth  proper,  and 
attempt  to  glean  from  the  chaos  of  legend  some  verit- 
able facts  connected  with  Maya  history.  According  to 
a  manuscript  of  Kuikatec  origin  recently  discovered,  it 
is  probable  that  a  Nahua  invasion  of  the  Maya  states 
of  Chiapas  and  Tabasco  took  place  about  the  ninth 
century  of  our  era,  and  we  must  for  the  present  regard 
that  as  the  starting-point  of  Maya  history.  The 
south-western  portions  of  the  Maya  territory  were 
agitated  about  the  same  time  by  race  movements,  which 
turned  northward  toward  Tehuantepcc,  and,  flowing 
through  Guatemala,  came  to  rest  in  Acalan,  on  the 
borders  of  Yucatan,  retarded,  probably,  by  the  in- 
hospitable and  waterless  condition  of  that  country. 
This  Nahua  invasion  probably  had  the  effect  of  driving 
150 


THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  YUCATAN 
the  more  peaceful  Maya  from  their  northerly  settle- 
ments and  forcing  them  farther  south.  Indeed, 
evidence  is  not  wanting  to  show  that  the  warlike 
Nahua  pursued  the  pacific  Maya  into  their  new 
retreats,  and  for  a  space  left  them  but  little  peace. 
This  struggle  it  was  which  finally  resulted  in  the 
breaking  up  of  the  Maya  civilisation,  which  even  at 
that  relatively  remote  period  had  reached  its  apogee, 
its  several  races  separating  into  numerous  city-states, 
which  bore  a  close  political  resemblance  to  those  of 
Italy  on  the  downfall  of  Rome.  At  this  period, 
probably,  began  the  cleavage  between  the  Maya  of 
Yucatan  and  those  of  Guatemala,  which  finally 
resolved  itself  into  such  differences  of  speech,  faith, 
and  architecture  as  almost  to  constitute  them  different 
peoples. 

The  Settlement  of  Yucatan 

As  the  Celts  of  Wales  and  Scotland  were  driven  into 
the  less  hospitable  regions  of  their  respective  countries 
by  the  inroads  of  the  Saxons,  so  was  one  branch  of  the 
Maya  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  the  almost  desert 
wastes  of  Yucatan.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Maya  did  not  take  to  this  barren  and  waterless  land  of 
their  own  accord.  Thrifty  and  possessed  of  high 
agricultural  attainments,  this  people  would  view  with 
concern  a  removal  to  a  sphere  so  forbidding  after  the 
rich  and  easily  developed  country  they  had  inhabited 
for  generations.  But  the  inexorable  Nahua  were  behind, 
and  they  were  a  peaceful  folk,  unused  to  the  horrors  of 
savage  warfare.  So,  taking  their  courage  in  both 
hands,  they  wandered  into  the  desert.  Everything 
points  to  a  late  occupation  of  Yucatan  by  the  Maya, 
and  architectural  effort  exhibits  deterioration,  evidenced 
in  a  high  conventionality  of  design  and  excess  of 

'5' 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

ornamentation.  Evidences  of  Nahua  influence  also 
are  not  wanting,  a  fact  which  is  eloquent  of  the  later 
period  of  contact  which  is  known  to  have  occurred 
between  the  peoples,  and  which  alone  is  almost 
sufficient  to  fix  the  date  of  the  settlement  of  the 
Maya  in  Yucatan.  It  must  not  be  thought  that  the 
Maya  in  Yucatan  formed  one  homogeneous  state 
recognising  a  central  authority.  On  the  contrary,  as  is 
often  the  case  with  colonists,  the  several  Maya  bands  of 
immigrants  formed  themselves  into  different  states  or 
kingdoms,  each  having  its  own  separate  traditions.  It 
is  thus  a  matter  of  the  highest  difficulty  to  so  collate 
and  criticise  these  traditions  as  to  construct  a  history  of 
the  Maya  race  in  Yucatan.  As  may  be  supposed,  we 
find  the  various  city-sites  founded  by  divine  beings 
who  play  a  more  or  less  important  part  in  the  Maya 
pantheon.  Kukulcan,  for  example,  is  the  first  king  of 
Mayapan,  whilst  Itzamna  figures  as  the  founder  of  the 
state  of  Itzamal.  The  gods  were  the  spiritual  leaders 
of  these  bands  of  Maya,  just  as  Jehovah  was  the 
spiritual  leader  and  guide  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
desert.  One  is  therefore  not  surprised  to  find  in  the 
Popol  Vuhy  the  saga  of  the  Kiche-Maya  of  Guatemala, 
that  the  god  Tohil  (The  Rumbler)  guided  them  to  the 
site  of  the  first  Kiche  city.  Some  writers  on  the 
subject  appear  to  think  that  the  incidents  in  such 
migration  myths,  especially  the  tutelage  and  guidance 
of  the  tribes  by  gods  and  the  descriptions  of  desert 
scenery  which  they  contain,  suffice  to  stamp  them  as 
mere  native  versions  of  the  Book  of  Exodus,  or  at  the 
best  myths  sophisticated  by  missionary  influence.  The 
truth  is  that  the  conditions  of  migration  undergone  by 
the  Maya  were  similar  to  those  described  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  by  no  means  merely  reflect  the  Bible  story, 
as  short-sighted  collators  of  both  aver. 
152 


FLIGHT  OF  THE  TUTUL  XIUS 

The  Septs  of  Yucatan 

The  priest-kings  of  Mayapan,  whoi  claimed  descent 
from  Kukulcan  or  Quetzalcoatl,  soon  raised  their  state 
into  a  position  of  prominence  among  the  surrounding 
cities.  Those  who  had  founded  Chichen-Itza,  and  who 
were  known  as  Itzaes,  were,  on  the  other  hand,  a  caste 
of  warriors  who  do  not  appear  to  have  cherished  the 
priestly  function  with  such  assiduity.  '  The  rulers  of 
the  Itzaes,  who  were  known  as  the  Tutul  Xius,  seem 
to  have  come,  according  to  their  traditions,  from  the 
western  Maya  states,  perhaps  from  Nonohualco  in 
Tabasco.  Arriving  from  thence  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Yucatan,  they  founded  the  city  of  Ziyan 
Caan,  on  Lake  Bacalar,  which  had  a  period  of  prosperity 
for  at  least  a  couple  of  generations.  At  the  expiry  of 
that  period  for  some  unaccountable  reason  they  migrated 
northward,  perhaps  because  at  that  particular  time  the  in- 
cidence of  power  was  shifting  toward  Northern  Yucatan, 
and  took  up  their  abode  in  Chichen-Itza,  eventually  the 
sacred  city  of  the  Maya,  which  they  founded. 

The  Cocomes] 

But  they  were  not  destined  to  remain  undisturbed  in 
their  new  sphere.  The  Cocomes  of  Mayapan,  when  at 
the  height  of  their  power,  viewed  with  disfavour  the 
settlement  of  the  Tutul  Xius.  After  it  had  flourished 
for  a  period  of  about  120  years  it  was  overthrown  by 
the  Cocomes,  who  resolved  it  into  a  dependency,  per- 
mitting the  governors  and  a  certain  number  of  the 
people  to  depart  elsewhere. 

Flight  of  the  Tutul  Xiuss 

Thus  expelled,  the  Tutul  Xius  fled  southward, 
whence  they  had  originally  come,  and  settled  in  Poton- 

'53 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
chan  or  Champoton,  where  they  reigned  for  nearly 
300  years.  From  this  new  centre,  with  the  aid  of 
Nahua  mercenaries,  they  commenced  an  extension  of 
territory  northward,  and  entered  into  diplomatic  rela- 
tions with  the  heads  of  the  other  Maya  states.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  they  built  Uxmal,  and  their  power  became 
so  extensive  that  they  reconquered  the  territory  they 
had  lost  to  the  Cocomes.  This  on  the  whole  appears 
to  have  been  a  period  when  the  arts  flourished  under  an 
enlightened  policy,  which  knew  how  to  make  and  keep 
friendly  relations  with  surrounding  states,  and  the 
splendid  network  of  roads  with  which  the  country  was 
covered  and  the  many  evidences  of  architectural  excel- 
lence go  to  prove  that  the  race  had  had  leisure  to 
achieve  much  in  art  and  works  of  utility.  Thus  the 
city  of  Chichen-Itza  was  linked  up  with  the  island  of 
Cozumel  by  a  highway  whereon  thousands  of  pilgrims 
plodded  to  the  temples  of  the  gods  of  wind  and 
moisture.  From  Itzamal,  too,  roads  branched  in  every 
direction,  in  order  that  the  people  should  have  every* 
facility  for  reaching  the  chief  shrine  of  the  country 
situated  there.  But  the  hand  of  the  Cocomes  was  heavy 
upon  the  other  Maya  states  which  were  tributary  to 
them.  As  in  the  Yucatan  of  to-day,  where  the  wretched 
henequen-picker  leads  the  life  of  a  veritable  slave,  a 
crushing  system  of  helotage  obtained.  The  Cocomes 
made  heavy  demands  upon  the  Tutul  Xius,  who  in  their 
turn  sweated  the  hapless  folk  under  their  sway  past  the 
bounds  of  human  endurance.  As  in  all  tottering  civilisa- 
tions, the  feeling  of  responsibility  among  the  upper 
classes  became  dormant,  and  they  abandoned  themselves 
to  the  pleasures  of  life  without  thought  of  the  morrow. 
Morality  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  a  virtue,  and  rotten- 
ness .was  at  the  core  of  Maya  life.  Discontent  quickly 
spread  on  every  hand. 
•54 


HUNAC  EEL 

The  Revolution  in  Mayapan 

The  sequel  was,  naturally,  revolution.  Ground  down 
by  the  tyranny  of  a  dissolute  oligarchy,  the  subject 
states  rose  in  revolt.  The  Cocomes  surrounded  them- 
selves by  Nahua  mercenaries,  who  succeeded  in  beating 
off  the  first  wave  of  revolt,  led  by  the  king  or  regulus  of 
Uxmal,  who  was  defeated,  and  whose  people  in  their 
turn  rose  against  him,  a  circumstance  which  ended  in 
the  abandonment  of  the  city  of  Uxmal.  Once  more 
were  the  Tutul  Xius  forced  to  go  on  pilgrimage,  and  this 
time  they  founded  the  city  of  Mani,  a  mere  shadow  of 
the  splendour  of  Uxmal  and  Chichen. 

Hunac  Eel 

If  the  aristocracy  of  the  Cocomes  was  composed  of 
weaklings,  its  ruler  was  made  of  sterner  stuff.  Hunac 
Eel,  who  exercised  royal  sway  over  this  people,  and 
held  in  subjection  the  lesser  principalities  of  Yucatan, 
was  not  only  a  tyrant  of  harsh  and  vindictive  tempera- 
ment, but  a  statesman  of  judgment  and  experience,  who 
courted  the  assistance  of  the  neighbouring  Nahua,  whom 
he  employed  in  his  campaign  against  the  new  assailant 
of  his  absolutism,  the  ruler  of  Chichen-Itza.  Muster- 
ing a  mighty  host  of  his  vassals,  Hunac  Eel  marched 
against  the  devoted  city  whose  prince  had  dared  to 
challenge  his  supremacy,  and  succeeded  in  inflicting  a 
crushing  defeat  upon  its  inhabitants.  But  apparently 
the  state  was  permitted  to  remain  under  the  sovereignty 
of  its  native  princes.  The  revolt,  however,  merely 
smouldered,  and  in  the  kingdom  of  Mayapan  itself,  the 
territory  of  the  Cocomes,  the  fires  of  revolution  began 
to  blaze.  This  state  of  things  continued  for  nearly  a 
century.  Then  the  crash  came.  The  enemies  of  the 
Cocomes  effected  a  junction.  The  people  of  Chichen- 

«55 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
Itza  joined  hands  with  the  Tutul  Xius,  who  had  sought 
refuge  in  the  central  highlands  of  Yucatan  and  those 
city-states  which  clustered  around  the  mother-city  of 
Mayapan.  A  fierce  concerted  attack  was  made,  beneath 
which  the  power  of  the  Cocomes  crumpled  up  com- 
pletely. Not  one  stone  was  left  standing  upon  another 
by  the  exasperated  allies,  who  thus  avenged  the  helotage 
of  nearly  300  years.  To  this  event  the  date  1436  is 
assigned,  but,  like  most  dates  in  Maya  history,  con- 
siderable uncertainty  must  be  attached  co  it. 

The  Last  of  the  Cocomes 

Only  a  remnant  of  the  Cocomes  survived.  They 
had  been  absent  in  Nahua  territory,  attempting  to  raise 
fresh  troops  for  the  defence  of  Mayapan.  These  the 
victors  spared,  and  they  finally  settled  in  Zotuta,  in  the 
centre  of  Yucatan,  a  region  of  almost  impenetrable 
forest. 

It  would  not  appear  that  the  city  of  Chichen-Itza,  the 
prince  of  which  was  ever  the  head  and  front  of  the 
rebellion  against  the  Cocomes,  profited  in  any  way  from 
the  fall  of  the  suzerain  power.  On  the  contrary,  tradi- 
tion has  it  that  the  town  was  abandoned  by  its  inhabi- 
tants, and  left  to  crumble  into  the  ruinous  state  in 
which  the  Spaniards  found  it  on  their  entrance  into 
the  country.  The  probability  is  that  its  people  quitted 
it  because  of  the  repeated  attacks  made  upon  it  by  the 
Cocomes,  who  saw  in  it  the  chief  obstacle  to  their 
universal  sway  ;  and  this  is  supported  by  tradition, 
which  tells  that  a  prince  of  Chichen-Itza,  worn  out 
with  conflict  and  internecine  strife,  left  it  to  seek  the 
cradle  of  the  Maya  race  in  the  land  of  the  setting 
sun.  Indeed,  it  is  further  stated  that  this  prince 
founded  the  city  of  Peten-Itza,  on  the  lake  of  Peten,  in 
Guatemala. 
156 


The  Prince  who  went  to  Found  a  City 
Gilbert  James 


156 


The  Maya  Peoples  of  Guatemala 

When  the  Maya  peoples  of  Guatemala,  the  Kiches 
and  the  Kakchiquels,  first  made  their  way  into  that 
territory,  they  probably  found  there  a  race  of  Maya 
origin  of  a  type  more  advanced  and  possessed  of  more 
ancient  traditions  than  themselves.  By  their  connection 
with  this  folk  they  greatly  benefited  in  the  direction  o* 
artistic  achievement  as  well  as  in  the  industrial  arts. 
Concerning  these  people  we  have  a  large  body  of  tradi- 
tion in  the  Popol  Vuh^  a  native  chronicle,  the  contents 
of  which  will  be  fully  dealt  with  in  the  chapter  relating 
to  the  Maya  myths  and  legendary  matter.  We  cannot 
deal  with  it  as  a  veritable  historical  document,  but  there 
is  little  doubt  that  a  basis  of  fact  exists  behind  the 
tradition  it  contains.  The  difference  between  the  lan- 
guage of  these  people  and  that  of  their  brethren  in 
Yucatan  was,  as  has  been  said,  one  of  dialect  only,  and 
a  like  slight  distinction  is  found  in  their  mythology, 
caused,  doubtless,  by  the  incidence  of  local  conditions, 
and  resulting  in  part  from  the  difference  between  a  level 
and  comparatively  waterless  land  and  one  of  a  semi- 
mountainous  character  covered  with  thick  forests.  We 
shall  note  further  differences  when  we  come  to  examine 
the  art  and  architecture  of  the  Maya  race,  and  to  compare 
those  of  its  two  most  distinctive  branches. 

The  Maya  Tulan 

It  was  to  the  city  of  Tulan,  probably  in  Tabasco,  that 
the  Maya  of  Guatemala  referred  as  being  the  starting- 
point  of  all  their  migrations.  We  must  not  confound 
this  place  with  the  Tollan  of  the  Mexican  traditions.  It 
is  possible  that  the  name  may  in  both  cases  be  derived 
from  a  root  meaning  a  place  from  which  a  tribe  set 
forth,  a  starting-place,  but  geographical  connection  there 

157 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
is  none.  From  here  Nima-Kiche,  the  great  Kiche, 
started  on  his  migration  to  the  mountains,  accompanied 
by  his  three  brothers.  Tulan,  says  the  Popol  Vuh,  had 
been  a  place  of  misfortune  to  man,  for  he  had  suffered 
much  from  cold  and  hunger,  and,  as  at  the  building 
of  Babel,  his  speech  was  so  confounded  that  the  first 
four  Kiches  and  their  wives  were  unable  to  comprehend 
one  another.  Of  course  this  is  a  native  myth  created  to 
account  for  the  difference  in  dialect  between  the  various 
branches  of  the  Maya  folk,  and  can  scarcely  have  any 
foundation  in  fact,  as  the  change  in  dialect  would  be  a 
very  gradual  process.  The  brothers,  we  are  told, 
divided  the  land  so  that  one  received  the  districts  of 
Mames  and  Pocomams,  another  Verapaz,  and  the  third 
Chiapas,  while  Nima-Kiche  obtained  the  country  of  the 
Kiches,  Kakchiquels,  and  Tzutuhils.  It  would  be  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  say  whether  or  not  this  tradition 
rests  on  any  veritable  historical  basis.  If  so,  it  refers 
to  a  period  anterior  to  the  Nahua  irruption,  for  the  dis- 
tricts alluded  to  as  occupied  by  these  tribes  were  not  so 
divided  among  them  at  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards.  * 

Doubtful  Dynasties 

As  with  the  earlier  dynasties  of  Egypt,  consider- 
able doubt  surrounds  the  history  of  the  early  Kiche 
monarchs.  Indeed,  a  period  of  such  uncertainty 
occurs  that  even  the  number  of  kings  who  reigned  is 
lost  in  the  hopeless  confusion  of  varying  estimates. 
From  this  chaos  emerge  the  facts  that  the  Kiche 
monarchs  held  the  supreme  power  among  the  peoples 
of  Guatemala,  that  they  were  the  contemporaries  of  the 
rulers  of  Mexico  city,  and  that  they  were  often  elected 
from  among  the  princes  of  the  subject  states.  Acxopil, 
the  successor  of  Nima-Kiche,  invested  his  second  son 
with  the  government  of  the  Kakchiquels,  and  placed  his 
158 


THE  RIDDLE  OF  ANCIENT  MAYA  WRITING 

youngest  son  over  the  Tzutuhils,  whilst  to  his  eldest 
son  he  left  the  throne  of  the  Riches.  Icutemal,  his 
eldest  son,  on  succeeding  his  father,  gifted  the  kingdom  of 
Kakchiquel  to  his  eldest  son,  displacing  his  own  brother 
and  thus  mortally  affronting  him.  The  struggle  which 
ensued  lasted  for  generations,  embittered  the  relations 
between  these  two  branches  of  the  Maya  in  Guatemala, 
and  undermined  their  joint  strength.  Nahua  mer- 
cenaries were  employed  in  the  struggle  on  both  sides, 
and  these  introduced  many  of  the  uglinesses  of  Nahua 
life  into  Maya  existence. 

The  Coming  of  the  Spaniards 

This  condition  of  things  lasted  up  to  the  time  of  the 
coming  of  the  Spaniards.  The  Kakchiquels  dated  the 
commencement  of  a  new  chronology  from  the  episode  of 
the  defeat  of  Cay  Hun-Apu  by  them  in  1492.  They 
may  have  saved  themselves  the  trouble  ;  for  the  time 
was  at  hand  when  the  calendars  of  their  race  were  to  be 
closed,  and  its  records  written  in  another  script  by 
another  people.  One  by  one,  and  chiefly  by  reason  of 
their  insane  policy  of  allying  themselves  with  the  invader 
against  their  own  kin,  the  old  kingdoms  of  Guatemala  fell 
as  spoil  to  the  daring  Conquistadores,  and  their  people 
passed  beneath  the  yoke  of  Spain — bondsmen  who  were 
to  beget  countless  generations  of  slaves. 

The  Riddle  of  Ancient  Maya  Writing 

What  may  possibly  be  the  most  valuable  sources  of 
Maya  history  are,  alas  !  sealed  to  us  at  present.  We 
allude  to  the  native  Maya  manuscripts  and  inscriptions, 
the  writing  of  which  cannot  be  deciphered  by  present-day 
scholars.  Some  of  the  old  Spanish  friars  who  lived  in 
the  times  which  directly  succeeded  the  settlement  of 
the  country  by  the  white  man  were  able  to  read  and 

»59 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

even  to  write  this  script,  but  unfortunately  they  regarded 
it  either  as  an  invention  of  the  Father  of  Evil  or,  as  it 
was  a  native  system,  as  a  thing  of  no  value.  In  a  few 
generations  all  knowledge  of  how  to  decipher  it  was 
totally  lost,  and  it  remains  to  the  modern  world  almost 
as  a  sealed  book,  although  science  has  lavished  all  its 
wonderful  machinery  of  logic  and  deduction  upon  it, 
and  men  of  unquestioned  ability  have  dedicated  their 
lives  to  the  problem  of  unravelling  what  must  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  mysterious 
riddles  of  which  mankind  ever  attempted  the  solution. 
The  romance  of  the  discovery  of  the  key  to  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphic  system  of  writing  is  well  known. 
For  centuries  the  symbols  displayed  upon  the  temples 
and  monuments  of  the  Nile  country  were  so  many 
meaningless  pictures  and  signs  to  the  learned  folk  of 
Europe,  until  the  discovery  of  the  Rosetta  stone  a 
hundred  years  ago  made  their  elucidation  possible. 
This  stone  bore  the  same  inscription  in  Greek,  demotic, 
and  hieroglyphics,  and  so  the  discovery  of  the  "  alpha- 
bet "  of  the  hidden  script  became  a  comparatively  easy 
task.  But  Central  America  has  no  Rosetta  stone,  nor 
is  it  possible  that  such  an  aid  to  research  can  ever  be 
found.  Indeed,  such  "  keys  "  as  have  been  discovered 
or  brought  forward  by  scientists  have  proved  for  the 
most  part  unavailing. 

The  Maya  Manuscripts 

The  principal  Maya  manuscripts  which  have  escaped 
the  ravages  of  time  are  the  codices  in  the  libraries  or 
Dresden,  Paris,  and  Madrid.  These  are  known  as  the 
Codex  Perezianus,  preserved  in  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationalc  at  Paris,  the  Dresden  Codex,  long  regarded 
as  an  Aztec  manuscript,  and  the  Troano  Codex,  so  called 
from  one  of  its  owners,  Sefior  Tro  y  Ortolano,  found  at 
160 


-  w 

a  s 

2  I 

o  8 


3    CD 


^    1 
H    g 


THE  SYSTEM  OF  THE  WRITING 

Madrid  in  1865.  These  manuscripts  deal  principally 
with  Maya  mythology,  but  as  they  cannot  be  deci- 
phered with  any  degree  of  accuracy  they  do  not  greatly 
assist  our  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

The  System  of  the  Writing 

The  "  Tablet  of  the  Cross "  gives  a  good  idea  of 
the  general  appearance  of  the  writing  system  of  the 
ancient  peoples  of  Central  America.  The  style  varies 
somewhat  in  most  of  the  manuscripts  and  inscriptions, 
but  it  is  generally  admitted  that  all  of  the  systems 
employed  sprang  originally  from  one  common  source. 
The  square  figures  which  appear  as  a  tangle  of  faces 
and  objects  are  said  to  be  "  calculiform,"  or  pebble- 
shaped,  a  not  inappropriate  description,  and  it  is  known 
from  ancient  Spanish  manuscripts  that  they  were  read 
from  top  to  bottom,  and  two  columns  at  a  time.  The 
Maya  tongue,  like  all  native  American  languages,  was 
one  which,  in  order  to  express  an  idea,  gathered  a 
whole  phrase  into  a  single  word,  and  it  has  been  thought 
that  the  several  symbols  or  parts  in  each  square  or 
sketch  go  to  make  up  such  a  compound  expression. 

The  first  key  (so  called)  to  the  hieroglyphs  of  Central 
America  was  that  of  Bishop  Landa,  who  about  1575 
attempted  to  set  down  the  Maya  alphabet  from  native 
sources.  He  was  highly  unpopular  with  the  natives, 
whose  literary  treasures  he  had  almost  completely 
destroyed,  and  who  in  revenge  deliberately  misled  him 
as  to  the  true  significance  of  the  various  symbols. 

The  first  real  step  toward  reading  the  Maya  writing 
was  made  in  1876  by  Leon  de  Rosny,  a  French  student 
of  American  antiquities,  who  succeeded  in  interpreting 
the  signs  which  denote  the  four  cardinal  points.  As 
has  been  the  case  in  so  many  discoveries  of  import- 
ance, the  significance  of  these  signs  was  simultaneously 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
discovered  by  Professor  Cyrus  Thomas  in  America.  In 
two  of  these  four  signs  was  found  the  symbol  which 
meant  "sun,"  almost,  as  de  Rosny  acknowledged,  as  a 
matter  of  course.  However,  the  Maya  word  for  "  sun  " 
{kin}  also  denotes  "day,"  and  it  was  later  proved  that 
this  sign  was  also  used  with  the  latter  meaning.  The 
discovery  of  the  sign  stimulated  further  research  to  a 
great  degree,  and  from  the  material  now  at  their  disposal 
Drs.  Forstemann  and  Schellhas  of  Berlin  were  success- 
ful in  discovering  the  sign  for  the  moon  and  that  for 
the  Maya  month  of  twenty  days. 

Clever  Elucidations 

In  1887  Dr.  Seler  discovered  the  sign  for  night 
(akbal))  and  in  1894  Forstemann  unriddled  the  symbols 
for  "beginning"  and  "end."  These  are  two  heads, 
the  first  of  which  has  the  sign  akbaly  just  mentioned,  for 
an  eye.  Now  akbal  means,  as  well  as  "  night,"  "  the 
beginning  of  the  month,"  and  below  the  face  which 
contains  it  can  be  seen  footsteps,  or  spots  which  resemble 
their  outline,  signifying  a  forward  movement.  The 
sign  in  the  second  head  means  "seventh,"  which  in 
Maya  also  signifies  "the  end."  From  the  frequent 
contrast  of  these  terms  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
their  meaning  is  as  stated. 

"  Union  "  is  denoted  by  the  sting  of  a  rattlesnake, 
the  coils  of  that  reptile  signifying  to  the  Maya  the 
idea  of  tying  together.  In  contrast  to  this  sign  is  the 
figure  next  to  it,  which  represents  a  knife,  and  means 
"  division  "  or  "cutting."  An  important  "letter"  is 
the  hand,  which  often  occurs  in  both  manuscripts  and 
inscriptions.  It  is  drawn  sometimes  in  the  act  of 
grasping,  with  the  thumb  bent  forward,  and  some- 
times as  pointing  in  a  certain  direction.  The  first 
seems  to  denote  a  tying  together  or  joining,  like  the 
162 


CLEVER  ELUCIDATIONS 

rattlesnake  symbol,  and  the  second  Forstemann  believes 
to  represent  a  lapse  of  time.  That  it  may  represent 
futurity  occurs  as  a  more  likely  conjecture  to  the  present 
writer. 

The  figure  denoting  the  spring  equinox  was  traced 
because  of  its  obvious  representation  of  a  cloud  from 
which  three  streams  of  water  are  falling  upon  the 
earth.  The  square  at  the  top  represents  heaven. 
The  obsidian  knife  underneath  denotes  a  division 
or  period  of  time  cut  off,  as  it  were,  from  other 
periods  of  the  year.  That  the  sign  means  "  spring  "  is 
verified  by  its  position  among  the  other  signs  or  the 
seasons. 

The  sign  for  "  week "  was  discovered  by  reason  of 
its  almost  constant  accompaniment  of  the  sign  for  the 
number  thirteen,  the  number  of  days  in  the  Maya 
sacred  week.  The  symbol  of  the  bird's  feather 
indicates  the  plural,  and  when  affixed  to  certain  signs 
signifies  that  the  object  indicated  is  multiplied.  A 
bird's  feather,  when  one  thinks  of  it,  is  one  of  the 
most  fitting  symbols  provided  by  nature  to  designate 
the  plural,  if  the  number  of  shoots  on  both  sides  of  the 
stem  are  raken  as  meaning  "  many  "  or  "  two." 

Water  is  depicted  by  the  figure  of  a  serpent, 
which  reptile  typifies  the  undulating  nature  of  the 
element.  The  sign  entitled  "the  sacrificial  victim" 
is  of  deep  human  interest.  The  first  portion  of 
the  symbol  is  tb,?  death-bird,  and  the  second  shows  a 
crouching  and  beaten  captive,  ready  to  be  immolated 
to  one  of  the  ^terrible  Maya  deities  whose  sanguinary 
religion  demanded  human  sacrifice.  The  drawing 
which  means  "  the  day  of  the  new  year,"  in  the 
month  Ceh,  was  unriddled  by  the  following  means  : 
The  sign  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  denotes  the 
word  "sun"  or  "day,"  that  in  the  upper  right-hand 

163 


MYTHS  OP  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
corner  is  the  sign  for  "  year."     In  the  lower  right-hand 
corner  is  the  sign  for  "  division,"  and  in  the  lower  left- 
hand  the  sign  for  the  Maya  month  Ceh,  already  known 
from  the  native  calendars. 

From  its  accompaniment  of  a  figure  known  to  be  a 
deity  of  the  four  cardinal  points,  whence  all  American 
tribes  believed  the  wind  to  come,  the  symbol  entitled 
"  wind  "  has  been  determined. 

Methods  of  Study 

The  method  employed  by  those  engaged  in  the 
elucidation  of  these  hieroglyphs  is  typical  of  modern 
science.  The  various  signs  and  symbols  are  literally 
"  worn  out "  by  a  process  of  indefatigable  examination. 
For  hours  the  student  sits  staring  at  a  symbol,  drinking 
in  every  detail,  however  infinitesimal,  until  the  drawing 
and  all  its  parts  are  wholly  and  separately  photographed 
upon  the  tablets  of  his  memory.  He  then  compares 
the  several  portions  of  the  symbol  with  similar  portions 
in  other  signs  the  value  of  which  is  known.  From 
these  he  may  obtain  a  clue  to  the  meaning  of  the 
whole.  Thus  proceeding  from  the  known  to  the 
unknown,  he  advances  logically  toward  a  complete 
elucidation  of  all  the  hieroglyphs  depicted  in  the 
various  manuscripts  and  inscriptions. 

The  method  by  which  Dr.  Seler  discovered  the 
hieroglyphs  or  symbols  relating  to  the  various  gods 
of  the  Maya  was  both  simple  and  ingenious.  He  says  : 
"  The  way  in  which  this  was  accomplished  is  strikingly 
simple.  It  amounts  essentially  to  that  which  in  ordinary 
life  we  call  *  memory  of  persons,'  and  follows  almost 
naturally  from  a  careful  study  of  the  manuscripts.  For, 
by  frequently  looking  tentatively  at  the  representations, 
one  learns  by  degrees  to  recognise  promptly  similar  and 
familiar  figures  of  gods  by  the  characteristic  impression 
164 


THE  MAYA  NUMERAL  SYSTEM 
they  make  as  a  whole  or  by  certain  details,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  the  accompanying  hieroglyphs." 

The  Maya  Numeral  System 

If  Bishop  Landa  was  badly  hoaxed  regarding  the 
alphabet  of  the  Maya,  he  was  successful  in  discovering 
and  handing  down  their  numeral  system,  which  was  on 
a  very  much  higher  basis  than  that  of  many  civilised 
peoples,  being,  for  example,  more  practical  and  more 
fully  evolved  than  that  of  ancient  Rome.  This  system 
employed  four  signs  altogether,  the  point  for  unity,  a 
horizontal  stroke  for  the  number  5,  and  two  signs  for 
20  and  o.  Yet  from  these  simple  elements  the  Maya 
produced  a  method  of  computation  which  is  perhaps 
as  ingenious  as  anything  which  has  ever  been  accom- 
plished in  the  history  of  mathematics.  In  the  Maya 
arithmetical  system,  as  in  ours,  it  is  the  position  of  the 
sign  that  gives  it  its  value.  The  figures  were  placed  in 
a  vertical  line,  and  one  of  them  was  employed  as  a 
decimal  multiplier.  The  lowest  figure  of  the  column 
had  the  arithmetical  value  which  it  represented.  The 
figures  which  appeared  in  the  second,  fourth,  and  each 
following  place  had  twenty  times  the  value  of  the  pre- 
ceding figures,  while  figures  in  the  third  place  had 
eighteen  times  the  value  of  those  in  the  second  place. 
This  system  admits  of  computation  up  to  millions,  and 
is  one  of  the  surest  signs  of  Maya  culture. 

Much  controversy  has  raged  round  the  exact  nature 
of  the  Maya  hieroglyphs.  Were  they  understood  by 
the  Indians  themselves  as  representing  ideas  or  merely 
pictures,  or  did  they  convey  a  given  sound  to  the 
reader,  as  does  our  alphabet  ?  To  some  extent  con- 
troversy upon  the  point  is  futile,  as  those  of  the 
Spanish  clergy  who  were  able  to  learn  the  writing 
from  the  native  Maya  have  confirmed  its  phonetic 

165 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

character,  so  that  in  reality  each  symbol  must  have 
conveyed  a  sound  or  sounds  to  the  reader,  not  merely 
an  idea  or  a  picture.  Recent  research  has  amply  proved 
this,  so  that  the  full  elucidation  of  the  long  and  painful 
puzzle  on  which  so  much  learning  and  patience  have 
been  lavished  may  perhaps  be  at  hand. 

Mythology  of  the  Maya 

The  Maya  pantheon,  although  it  bears  a  strong 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  Nahua,  differs  from  it  in  so 
many  respects  that  it  is  easy  to  observe  that  at  one 
period  it  must  have  been  absolutely  free  from  all 
Nahua  influence.  We  may,  then,  provisionally  accept 
the  theory  that  at  some  relatively  distant  period  the 
mythologies  of  the  Nahua  and  Maya  were  influenced 
from  one  common  centre,  if  they  were  not  originally 
identical,  but  that  later  the  inclusion  in  the  cognate  but 
divided  systems  of  local  deities  and  the  superimposition 
of  the  deities  and  rites  of  immigrant  peoples  had  caused 
such  differentiation  as  to  render  somewhat  vague  the 
original  likeness  between  them.  In  the  Mexican 
mythology  we  have  as  a  key-note  the  custom  of  human 
sacrifice.  It  has  often  been  stated  as  exhibiting  the 
superior  status  in  civilisation  of  the  Maya  that  their 
religion  was  free  from  the  revolting  practices  which 
characterised  the  Nahua  faith.  This,  however,  is 
totally  erroneous.  Although  the  Maya  were  not 
nearly  so  prone  to  the  practice  of  human  sacrifice  as 
were  the  Nahua,  they  frequently  engaged  in  it,  and  the 
pictures  which  have  been  drawn  or  their  bloodless 
offerings  must  not  lead  us  to  believe  that  they  never 
indulged  in  this  rite.  It  is  known,  for  example,  that 
they  sacrificed  maidens  to  the  water-god  at  the  period 
of  the  spring  florescence,  by  casting  them  into  a  deep 
pool,  where  they  were  drowned. 
166 


<      ^ 


QUETZALCOATL  AMONG  THE  MAYA 

Quetzalcoatl  among  the  Maya 

One  of  the  most  obvious  of  the  mythological  rela- 
tionships between  the  Maya  and  Nahua  is  exhibited 
in  the  Maya  cult  of  the  god  Quetzalcoatl.  It  seems  to 
have  been  a  general  belief  in  Mexico  that  Quetzalcoatl 
was  a  god  foreign  to  the  soil ;  or  at  least  relatively 
aboriginal  to  his  rival  Tezcatlipoca,  if  not  to  the  Nahua 
themselves.  It  is  amusing  to  see  it  stated  by  autho- 
rities of  the  highest  standing  that  his  worship  was  free 
from  bloodshed.  But  it  does  not  appear  whether  the 
sanguinary  rites  connected  with  the  name  of  Quetzal- 
coatl in  Mexico  were  undertaken  by  his  priests  of  their 
own  accord  or  at  the  instigation  and  pressure  of  the 
pontiff  of  Huitzilopochtli,  under  whose  jurisdiction 
they  were.  The  designation  by  which  Quetzalcoatl 
was  known  to  the  Maya  was  Kukulcan,  which  signifies 
"Feathered  Serpent,"  and  is  exactly  translated  by  his 
Mexican  name.  In  Guatemala  he  was  called  Gucumatz, 
which  word  is  also  identical  in  Kiche  with  his  other 
native  appellations.  But  the  Kukulcan  of  the  Maya 
appears  to  be  dissimilar  from  Quetzalcoatl  in  several 
of  his  attributes.  The  difference  in  climate  would 
probably  account  for  most  of  these.  In  Mexico  Quetzal- 
coatl, as  we  have  seen,  was  not  only  the  Man  of  the 
Sun,  but  the  original  wind-god  of  the  country.  The 
Kukulcan  of  the  Maya  has  more  the  attributes  of  a 
thunder-god.  In  the  tropical  climate  of  Yucatan  and 
Guatemala  the  sun  at  midday  appears  to  draw  the  clouds 
around  it  in  serpentine  shapes.  From  these  emanate 
thunder  and  lightning  and  the  fertilising  rain,  so  that 
Kukulcan  would  appear  to  have  appealed  to  the  Maya 
more  as  a  god  of  the  sky  who  wielded  the  thunderbolts 
than  a  god  of  the  atmosphere  proper  like  Quetzalcoatl, 
though  several  of  the  stelae  in  Yucatan  represent 

167 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
Kukulcan    as   he  is  portrayed  in  Mexico,  with  wind 
issuing  from  his  mouth. 

An  Alphabet  of  Gods 

The  principal  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  the  Maya 
deities  are  the  Dresden,  Madrid,  and  Paris  codices 
alluded  to  previously,  all  of  which  contain  many 
pictorial  representations  of  the  various  members  of  the 
Maya  pantheon.  Of  the  very  names  of  some  of  these 
gods  we  are  so  ignorant,  and  so  difficult  is  the  process 
of  affixing  to  them  the  traditional  names  which  are 
left  to  us  as  those  of  the  Maya  gods,  that  Dr.  Paul 
Schellhas,  a  German  student  of  Maya  antiquities,  has  pro- 
posed that  the  figures  of  deities  appearing  in  the  Maya 
codices  or  manuscripts  should  be  provisionally  indicated 
by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  The  figures  of  gods 
which  thus  occur  are  fifteen  in  number,  and  therefore 
take  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  from  A  to  P,  the  letter 
J  being  omitted. 

Difficulties  of  Comparison 

Unluckily  the  accounts  of  Spanish  authors  concerning 
Maya  mythology  do  not  agree  with  the  representations 
of  the  gods  delineated  in  the  codices.  That  the  three 
codices  have  a  mythology  in  common  is  certain.  Again, 
great  difficulty  is  found  in  comparing  the  deities  or  the 
codices  with  those  represented  by  the  carved  and  stucco 
bas-reliefs  of  the  Maya  region.  It  will  thus  be  seen 
that  very  considerable  difficulties  beset  the  student  in 
this  mythological  sphere.  So  few  data  have  yet  been 
collected  regarding  the  Maya  mythology  that  to  dog- 
matise upon  any  subject  connected  with  it  would  indeed 
be  rash.  But  much  has  been  accomplished  in  the  past 
few  decades,  and  evidence  is  slowly  but  surely  accumu- 
lating from  which  sound  conclusions  can  be  drawn. 
168 


THE  CALENDAR 

The  Conflict  between  Light  and  Darkness 

We  witness  in  the  Maya  mythology  a  dualism 
almost  as  complete  as  that  or  ancient  Persia — the  con- 
flict between  light  and  darkness.  Opposing  each  other 
we  behold  on  the  one  hand  the  deities  of  the  sun,  the 
gods  of  warmth  and  light,  of  civilisation  and  the  joy  of 
life,  and  on  the  other  the  deities  of  darksome  death,  of 
night,  gloom,  and  fear.  From  these  primal  conceptions 
of  light  and  darkness  all  the  mythologic  forms  of  the 
Maya  are  evolved.  When  we  catch  the  first  recorded 
glimpses  of  Maya  belief  we  recognise  that  at  the  period 
when  it  came  under  the  purview  of  Europeans  the  gods 
of  darkness  were  in  the  ascendant  and  a  deep  pessimism 
had  spread  over  Maya  thought  and  theology.  Its 
joyful  side  was  subordinated  to  the  worship  of  gloomy 
beings,  the  deities  of  death  and  hell,  and  if  the  cult  of 
light  was  attended  with  such  touching  fidelity  it  was 
because  the  benign  agencies  who  were  worshipped 
in  connection  with  it  had  promised  not  to  desert  man- 
kind altogether,  but  to  return  at  some  future  in- 
definite period  and  resume  their  sway  of  radiance  and 
peace. 

The  Calendar 

Like  that  of  the  Nahua,  the  Maya  mythology  was 
based  almost  entirely  upon  the  calendar,  which  in  its 
astronomic  significance  and  duration  was  identical  with 
that  of  the  Mexicans.  The  ritual  year  of  twenty 
"  weeks  "  of  thirteen  days  each  was  divided  into  four 
quarters,  each  of  these  being  under  the  auspices  of  a 
different  quarter  of  the  heavens.  Each  "  week  "  was 
under  the  supervision  of  a  particular  deity,  as  will  be 
seen  when  we  come  to  deal  separately  with  the  various 
gods. 

169 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Traditional  Knowledge  of  the  Gods 

The  heavenly  bodies  had  important  representation 
in  the  Maya  pantheon.  In  Yucatan  the  sun-god  was 
known  as  Kinich-ahau  (Lord  of  the  Face  of  the  Sun). 
He  was  identified  with  the  Fire-bird,  or  Arara,  and  was 
thus  called  Kinich-Kakmo  (Fire-bird  ;  lit.  Sun-bird). 
He  was  also  the  presiding  genius  of  the  north. 

Itzamna,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Maya 
deities,  was  a  moon-god,  the  father  of  gods  and  men. 
In  him  was  typified  the  decay  and  recurrence  of  life  in 
nature.  His  name  was  derived  from  the  words  he  was 
supposed  to  have  given  to  men  regarding  himself :  "  Itz 
en  caan,  itz  en  muyal  "  ("  I  am  the  dew  of  the  heaven, 
I  am  the  dew  of  the  clouds  ").  He  was  tutelar  deity  of 
the  west. 

Chac,  the  rain-god,  is  the  possessor  of  an  elongated 
nose,  not  unlike  the  proboscis  of  a  tapir,  which  of 
course  is  the  spout  whence  comes  the  rain  which  he 
blows  over  the  earth.  He  is  one  of  the  best  repre- 
sented gods  on  both  manuscripts  and  monuments,  and 
presides  over  the  east.  The  black  god  Ekchuah  was 
the  god  of  merchants  and  cacao-planters.  He  is  repre- 
sented in  the  manuscripts  several  times. 

Ix  ch'el  was  the  goddess  of  medicine,  and  Ix  chebel 
yax  was  identified  by  the  priest  Hernandez  with  the 
Virgin  Mary.  There  were  also  several  deities,  or 
rather  genii,  called  Bacabs,  who  were  the  upholders  of 
the  heavens  in  the  four  quarters  of  the  sky.  The 
names  of  these  were  Kan,  Muluc,  Ix,  and  Cauac, 
representing  the  east,  north,  west,  and  south.  Their 
symbolic  colours  were  yellow,  white,  black,  and  red 
respectively.  They  corresponded  in  some  degree  to 
the  four  variants  of  the  Mexican  rain-god  Tlaloc,  foi 
many  of  the  American  races  believed  that  rain,  the 
170 


THE  BAT-GOD 

fertiliser  of  the  soil,  emanated  from  the  four  points  of  the 
compass.  We  shall  find  still  other  deities  when  we  come 
to  discuss  the  Popol  Vuh^  the  saga-book  of  the  Kiche, 
but  it  is  difficult  to  say  how  far  these  were  connected 
with  the  deities  of  the  Maya  of  Yucatan,  concerning 
whom  we  have  little  traditional  knowledge,  and  it  is 
better  to  deal  with  them  separately,  pointing  out 
resemblances  where  these  appear  to  exist. 

Maya  Polytheism 

On  the  whole  the  Maya  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
burdened  with  an  extensive  pantheon,  as  were  the 
Nahua,  and  their  polytheism  appears  to  have  been  of  a 
limited  character.  Although  they  possessed  a  number 
of  divinities,  these  were  in  a  great  measure  only 
different  forms  of  one  and  the  same  divine  power — 
probably  localised  forms  of  it.  The  various  Maya 
tribes  worshipped  similar  gods  under  different  names. 
They  recognised  divine  unity  in  the  god  Hunabku,  who 
was  invisible  and  supreme,  but  he  does  not  bulk  largely 
in  their  mythology,  any  more  than  does  the  universal 
All-Father  in  other  early  faiths.  The  sun  is  the  great 
deity  in  Maya  religion,  and  the  myths  which  tell  of  the 
origin  of  the  Maya  people  are  purely  solar.  As  the  sun 
comes  from  the  east,  so  the  hero-gods  who  bring  with 
them  culture  and  enlightenment  have  an  oriental  origin. 
As  Votan,  as  Kabil,  the  "  Red  Hand  "  who  initiates  the 
people  into  the  arts  of  writing  and  architecture,  these 
gods  are  civilising  men  of  the  sun  as  surely  as  is 
Quetzalcoatl. 

The  Bat-God 

A  sinister  figure,  the  prince  of  the  Maya  legions  of 
darkness,  is  the  bat-god,  Zotzilaha  Chimalman,  who 
dwelt  in  the  "  House  of  Bats,"  a  gruesome  cavern  on 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
the  way  to  the  abodes  of  darkness  and  death.  He  is 
undoubtedly  a  relic  of  cave-worship  pure  and  simple. 
"The  Maya,"  says  an  old  chronicler,  "have  an  im- 
moderate fear  of  death,  and  they  seem  to  have  given  it 
a  figure  peculiarly  repulsive."  We  shall  find  this  deity 
alluded  to  in  the  Popol  Vuh^  under  the  name  Camazotz, 
in  close  proximity  to  the  Lords  of  Death  and  Hell, 
attempting  to  bar  the  journey  of  the  hero-gods  across 
these  dreary  realms.  He  is  frequently  met  with  on  the 
Copan  reliefs,  and  a  Maya  clan,  the  Ah-zotzils,  were 
called  by  his  name.  They  were  of  Kakchiquel  origin, 
and  he  was  probably  their  totem. 

Modern  Research 

We  must  now  turn  to  the  question  of  what  modern 
research  has  done  to  elucidate  the  character  of  the 
various  Maya  deities.  We  have  already  seen  that  they 
have  been  provisionally  named  by  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  until  such  proof  is  forthcoming  as  will  identify 
them  with  the  traditional  gods  of  the  Maya,  and  we 
will  now  briefly  examine  what  is  known  concerning 
them  under  their  temporary  designations. 

God  A 

In  the  Dresden  and  other  codices  god  A  is  repre- 
sented as  a  figure  with  exposed  vertebrae  and  skull-like 
countenance,  with  the  marks  of  corruption  on  his  body, 
and  displaying  every  sign  of  mortality.  On  his  head 
he  wears  a  snail-symbol,  the  Aztec  sign  of  birth,  perhaps 
to  typify  the  connection  between  birth  and  death.  He 
also  wears  a  pair  of  cross-bones.  The  hieroglyph  which 
accompanies  his  figure  represents  a  corpse's  head  with 
closed  eyes,  a  skull,  and  a  sacrificial  knife.  His  symbol 
is  that  for  the  calendar  day  Cimi,  which  means  death. 
He 'presides  over  the  west,  the  home  of  the  dead,  the 
172 


I 


The  House  of  Bats 
Gilbert  James 


17? 


MAYA  GODS 

region  toward  which  they  invariably  depart  with  the 
setting  sun.  That  he  is  a  death-god  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  but  of  his  name  we  are  ignorant.  He  is  prob- 
ably identical  with  the  Aztec  god  of  death  and  hell, 
Mictlan,  and  is  perhaps  one  of  those  Lords  of  Death 
and  Hell  who  invite  the  heroes  to  the  celebrated  game 
of  ball  in  the  Kiche  Popol  Vuh^  and  hold  them  prisoners 
in  their  gloomy  realm. 

God  B  is  the  deity  who  appears  most  frequently  in 
the  manuscripts.  He  has  a  long,  truncated  nose,  like 
that  of  a  tapir,  and  we  find  in  him  every  sign  of  a  god 
of  the  elements.  He  walks  the  waters,  wields  fiery 
torches,  and  seats  himself  on  the  cruciform  tree  of  the 
four  winds  which  appears  so  frequently  in  American 
myth.  He  is  evidently  a  culture-god  or  hero,  as  he  is 
seen  planting  maize,  carrying  tools,  and  going  on  a 
journey,  a  fact  which  establishes  his  solar  connection. 
He  is,  in  fact,  Kukulcan  or  Quetzalcoatl,  and  on  examin- 
ing him  we  feel  that  at  least  there  can  be  no  doubt 
concerning  his  identity. 

Concerning  god  C  matter  is  lacking,  but  he  is  evidently 
a  god  of  the  pole-star,  as  in  one  of  the  codices  he  is 
surrounded  by  planetary  signs  and  wears  a  nimbus 
of  rays. 

God  D  is  almost  certainly  a  moon-god.  He  is 
represented  as  an  aged  man,  with  sunken  cheeks  and 
wrinkled  forehead  on  which  hangs  the  sign  for  night. 
His  hieroglyph  is  surrounded  by  dots,  to  represent  a 
starry  sky,  and  is  followed  by  the  number  20,  to  show 
the  duration  of  the  moon.  Like  most  moon  deities 
he  is  connected  with  birth,  for  occasionally  he  wears 
the  snail,  symbol  of  parturition,  on  his  head.  It  is 
probable  that  he  is  Itzamna,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Maya  gods,  who  was  regarded  as  the  universal  life-giver, 
and  was  probably  of  very  ancient  origin. 

173 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  Maize'God 

God  E  is  another  deity  whom  we  have  no  difficulty 
in  identifying.  He  wears  the  leafed  ear  of  maize  as  his 
head-dress.  In  fact,  hi?  head  has  been  evolved  out  of 
the  conventional  drawings  of  the  ear  of  maize,  so  we 
may  say  at  once  without  any  difficulty  that  he  is  a 
maize-god  pure  and  simple,  and  a  parallel  with  the 
Aztec  maize-god  Centeotl.  Brinton  calls  this  god 
Ghanan,  and  Schellhas  thinks  he  may  be  identical  with 
a  deity  Yum  Kaax,  whose  name  means  "Lord  of  the 
Harvest  Fields." 

A  close  resemblance  can  be  noticed  between  gods 
F  and  A,  and  it  is  thought  that  the  latter  resembles 
the  Aztec  Xipe,  the  god  of  human  sacrifice.  He  is 
adorned  with  the  same  black  lines  running  over  the 
face  and  body,  typifying  gaping  death-wounds. 

The  Sun'God 

In  G  we  may  be  sure  that  we  have  found  a  sun-god 
par  excellence.  His  hieroglyph  is  the  sup-sign,  kin. 
But  we  must  be  careful  not  to  confound  him  with  deities 
like  Quetzalcoatl  or  Kukulcan.  He  is,  like  the  Mexican 
Totec,  the  sun  itself,  and  not  the  JVan  of  the  Sun,  the 
civilising  agent,  who  leaves  his  bright  abode  to  dwell 
with  man  and  introduce  him  to  the  arts  of  cultured 
existence.  He  is  the  luminary  himself,  whose  only 
acceptable  food  is  human  blood,  and  who  must  be  fed 
full  with  this  terrible  fare  or  perish,  dragging  the  world 
of  men  with  him  into  a  fathomless  abyss  of  gloom.  We 
need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  to  see  god  G  occa- 
sionally wearing  the  symbols  of  death. 

God  H  would  seem  to  have  some  relationship  to  the 
serpent,  but  what  it  may  be  is  obscure,  and  no  certain 
identification  can  be  made. 
174 


I  is  a  water-goddess,  an  old  woman  with  wrinkled 
hrown  body  and  claw-like  feet,  wearing  on  her  head  a 
grisly  snake  twisted  into  a  knot,  to  typify  the  serpent- 
like  nature  of  water.  She  holds  in  her  hands  an  earthen- 
ware pot  from  which  water  flows.  We  cannot  sav  that 
she  resembles  the  Mexican  water-goddess,  Chal  hihuit- 
licue,  wife  of  Tlaloc,  who  was  in  most  respects  a  deity 
of  a  beneficent  character.  I  seems  a  personification  of 
water  in  its  more  dreadful  aspect  of  floods  and  water- 
spouts, as  it  must  inevitably  have  appeared  to  the  people 
of  the  more  torrid  regions  of  Central  America,  and  that 
she  was  regarded  as  an  agent  of  death  is  shown  from  her 
occasionally  wearing  the  cross-bones  of  the  death-god. 

"The  God  with  the  Ornamented  Nose" 

God  K  is  scientifically  known  as  "  the  god  with  the 
ornamented  nose,"  and  is  probably  closely  related  to  god 
B.  Concerning  him  no  two  authorities  are  at  one,  some 
regarding  him  as  a  storm-god,  whose  proboscis,  like  that 
of  Kukulcan,  is  intended  to  represent  the  blast  of  the 
tempest.  But  we  observe  certain  stellar  signs  in  con- 
nection with  K  which  would  go  to  prove  that  he  is,  in- 
deed, one  of  the  Quetzalcoatl  group.  His  features  are 
constantly  to  be  met  with  on  the  gateways  and  corners 
of  the  ruined  shrines  of  Central  America,  and  have  led 
many  "  antiquarians  "  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  an 
elephant-headed  god,  whereas  his  trunk-like  snout  is 
merely  a  funnel  through  which  he  emitted  the  gales 
over  which  he  had  dominion,  as  a  careful  study  of  the 
pinturas  shows,  the  wind  being  depicted  issuing  from 
the  snout  in  question.  At  the  same  time,  the  snout  may 
have  been  modelled  on  that  of  the  tapir.  "  If  the  rain- 
god  Chac  is  distinguished  in  the  Maya  manuscript  by  a 
peculiarly  long  nose  curving  over  the  mouth,  and  if  in  the 
other  forms  of  the  rain-god,  to  which,  as  it  seems,  the 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
name  of  Balon  Zacab  belongs,  the  nose  widens  out  and 
sends  out  shoots,  I  believe  that  the  tapir  which  was 
employed  identically  with  Chac,  the  Maya  rain-god, 
furnished  the  model,"  says  Dr.  Seler.  Is  K,  then,  the 
same  as  Chac  ?  Chac  bears  every  sign  of  affinity  with 
the  Mexican  rain-god  Tlaloc,  whose  face  was  evolved 
from  the  coils  of  two  snakes,  and  also  some  resemblance 
to  the  snouted  features  of  B  and  K.  But,  again,  the 
Mexican  pictures  of  Quetzalcoatl  are  not  at  all  like 
those  of  Tlaloc,  so  that  there  can  be  no  affinity  between 
Tlaloc  and  K.  Therefore  if  the  Mexican  Tlaloc  and 
the  Maya  Chac  be  identical,  and  Tlaloc  differs  from 
Quetzalcoatl,  who  in  turn  is  identical  with  B  and  K,  it 
is  clear  that  Chac  has  nothing  to  do  with  K. 

The  Old  Black  God 

God  L  Dr.  Schellhas  has  designated  "the  Old  Black 
God,"  from  the  circumstance  that  he  is  depicted  as  an 
old  man  with  sunken  face  and  toothless  gums,  the 
upper,  or  sometimes  the  lower,  part  of  his  features  being 
covered  with  black  paint.  He  is  represented  in  the 
Dresden  MS.  only.  Professor  Cyrus  Thomas,  of  New 
York,  thinks  that  he  is  the  god  Ekchuah,  who  is  tradi- 
tionally described  as  black,  but  Schellhas  fits  this  desig- 
nation to  god  M.  The  more  probable  theory  is  that  of 
FOrstemann,  who  sees  in  L  the  god  Votan,  who  is 
identical  with  the  Aztec  earth-god,  Tepeyollotl.  Both 
deities  have  similar  face  markings,  and  their  dark  hue 
is  perhaps  symbolical  of  the  subterranean  places  where 
they  were  supposed  to  dwell. 

The  Travellers*  God 

God  M  is  a  veritable  black  god,  with  reddish  lips. 
On  his  head  he  bears  a  roped  package  resembling  the 
loads  carried  by  the  Maya  porter  class,  and  he  is  round 


THE  FROG-GOD 

in  violent  opposition  with  F,  the  enemy  of  all  who 
wander  into  the  unknown  wastes.  A  god  of  this  de- 
scription has  been  handed  down  by  tradition  under  the 
name  of  Ekchuah,  and  his  blackness  is  probably  sym- 
bolical of  the  black  or  deeply  bronzed  skin  of  the  porter 
class  among  the  natives  of  Central  America,  who  are 
constantly  exposed  to  the  sun.  He  would  appear  to 
be  a  parallel  to  the  Aztec  Yacatecutli,  god  of  travelling 
merchants  or  chapmen. 

The  God  of  Unlucky  Days 

God  N  is  identified  by  Schellhas  with  the  demon 
Uayayab,  who  presided  over  the  five  unlucky  days  which 
it  will  be  recollected  came  at  the  end  of  the  Mexican 
and  Maya  year.  He  was  known  to  the  Maya  as  "  He 
by  whom  the  year  is  poisoned."  After  modelling  his 
image  in  clay  they  carried  it  out  of  their  villages,  so  that 
his  baneful  influence  might  not  dwell  therein. 

Goddess  O  is  represented  as  an  old  woman  engaged 
in  the  avocation  of  spinning,  and  is  probably  a  goddess 
of  the  domestic  virtues,  the  tutelar  of  married  females. 

The  Frog'God 

God  P  is  shown  with  the  body  and  fins  of  a  frog 
on  a  blue  background,  evidently  intended  to  represent 
water.  Like  all  other  frog-gods  he  is,  of  course,  a  deity 
of  water,  probably  in  its  agricultural  significance.  We 
find  him  sowing  seed  and  making  furrows,  and  when  we 
remember  the  important  part  played  by  frog  deities  in 
the  agriculture  of  Anahuac  we  should  have  no  difficulty 
in  classing  him  with  these.  Seler  asserts  his  identity 
with  Kukulcan,  but  no  reason  except  the  circumstance 
of  his  being  a  rain-god  can  be  advanced  to  establish  the 
identity.  He  wears  the  year-sign  on  his  head,  prooably 
with  a  seasonal  reference. 

u  177 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Maya  Architecture 

It  was  in  the  wonderful  architectural  system  which  it 
developed  without  outside  aid  that  the  Maya  people 
most  individually  expressed  itself.  As  has  been  said, 
those  buildings  which  still  remain,  and  which  have 
excited  the  admiration  of  generations  of  archaeologists, 
are  principally  confined  to  examples  of  ecclesiastical 
and  governmental  architecture,  the  dwellings  of  the 
common  people  consisting  merely  of  the  flimsiest  of 
wattle-and-daub  structures,  which  would  fall  to  pieces 
shortly  after  they  were  abandoned. 

Buried  in  dense  forests  or  mouldering  on  the  sun- 
exposed  plains  of  Yucatan,  Honduras,  and  Guatemala, 
the  cities  which  boasted  these  edifices  are  for  the  most 
part  situated  away  from  modern  trade  routes,  and  are 
not  a  little  difficult  to  come  at.  It  is  in  Yucatan,  the 
old  home  of  the  Cocomes  and  Tutul  Xius,  that  the 
most  perfect  specimens  of  Maya  architecture  are  to  be 
found,  especially  as  regards  its  later  development,  and 
here,  too,  it  may  be  witnessed  in  its  decadent  phase. 

Methods  of  Building 

The  Maya  buildings  were  almost  always  erected 
upon  a  mound  or  kut  either  natural  or  artificial, 
generally  the  latter.  In  this  we  discover  affinities 
with  the  Mexican  teocalli  type.  Often  these  kus  stood 
alone,  without  any  superincumbent  building  save  a 
small  altar  to  prove  their  relation  to  the  temple  type 
of  Anahuac.  The  typical  Maya  temple  was  buiit  on  a 
series  of  earth  terraces  arranged  in  exact  parallel  order, 
the  buildings  themselves  forming  the  sides  of  a  square. 
The  mounds  are  generally  concealed  by  plaster  or  faced 
with  stone,  the  variety  employed  being  usually  a  hard 
sandstone,  of  which  the  Maya  had  a  good  supply  in 
178 


NO  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  ARCH 

the  quarries  of  Chiapas  and  Honduras.  Moderate  in 
weight,  the  difficulty  of  transport  was  easily  overcome, 
whilst  large  blocks  could  be  readily  quarried.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  the  Maya  had  no  substantial  difficulties 
to  surmount  in  connection  with  building  the  large 
edifices  and  temples  they  raised,  except,  perhaps,  the 
lack  of  metal  tools  to  shape  and  carve  and  quarry  the 
stone  which  they  used.  And  although  they  exhibit 
considerable  ingenuity  in  such  architectural  methods  as 
they  employed,  they  were  still  surprisingly  ignorant 
of  some  of  the  first  essentials  and  principles  of  the 
art. 

No  Knowledge  of  the  Arch 

For  example,  they  were  totally  ignorant  of  the 
principles  upon  which  the  arch  is  constructed.  This 
difficulty  they  overcame  by  making  each  course  of 
masonry  overhang  the  one  beneath  it,  after  the  method 
employed  by  a  boy  with  a  box  of  bricks,  who  finds 
that  he  can  only  make  "  doorways "  by  this  means, 
or  by  the  simple  expedient — also  employed  by 
the  Maya — of  placing  a  slab  horizontally  upon  two 
upright  pillars.  In  consequence  it  will  readily  be 
seen  that  the  superimposition  of  a  second  story  upon 
such  an  insecure  foundation  was  scarcely  to  be  thought 
of,  and  that  such  support  for  the  roof  as  towered 
above  the  doorway  would  necessarily  require  to  be  of 
the  most  substantial  description.  Indeed,  this  portion 
of  the  building  often  appears  to  be  more  than  half 
the  size  of  the  rest  of  the  edifice.  This  space  gave 
the  Maya  builders  a  splendid  chance  for  mural  decora- 
tion, and  it  must  be  said  they  readily  seized  it  and 
made  the  most  of  it,  ornamental  fa£ades  being  perhaps 
the  most  typical  features  in  the  relics  of  Maya  archi- 
tecture. 

179 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Pyramidal  Structures 

But  the  Maya  possessed  another  type  of  building 
which  permitted  or  their  raising  more  than  one  story. 
This  was  the  pyramidal  type,  of  which  many  examples 
remain.  The  first  story  was  built  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  the  second  was  raised  by  increasing  the  height  of 
the  mound  at  the  back  of  the  building  until  it  was 
upon  a  level  with  the  roof — another  device  well  known 
to  the  boy  with  the  box  of  bricks.  In  the  centre  of 
the  space  thus  made  another  story  could  be  erected, 
which  was  entered  by  a  staircase  outside  the  building. 
Hampered  by  their  inability  to  build  to  any  appreciable 
height,  the  Maya  architects  made  up  for  the  deficiency 
by  constructing  edifices  of  considerable  length  and 
breadth,  the  squat  appearance  of  which  is  counter- 
balanced by  the  beautiful  mural  decoration  of  the  sides 
and  fa9ade. 

Definiteness  of  Design 

He  would  be  a  merely  superficial  observer  who 
would  form  the  conclusion  that  these  specimens  of  an 
architecture  spontaneously  evolved  were  put  together 
without  survey,  design,  or  previous  calculation.  That 
as  much  thought  entered  into  their  construction  as  is 
lavished  upon  his  work  by  a  modern  architect  is  proved 
by  the  manner  in  which  the  carved  stones  fit  into  one 
another.  It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  these 
tremendous  fasades  bristling  with  scores  of  intricate 
designs  could  have  been  first  placed  in  position  and 
subsequently  laden  with  the  bas-reliefs  they  exhibit. 
It  is  plain  that  they  were  previously  worked  apart  and 
separately  from  one  entire  design.  Thus  we  see  that 
the  highest  capabilities  of  the  architect  were  essential  in 
a  measure  to  the  erection  of  these  imposing  structures. 
180 


FASCINATION  OF  THE  SUBJECT 

Architectural  Districts 

Although  the  mason-craft  of  the  Maya  peoples  was 
essentially  similar  in  all  the  regions  populated  by  its 
various  tribes  and  offshoots,  there  existed  in  the  several 
localities  occupied  by  them  certain  differences  in  con- 
struction and  ornamentation  which  would  almost  justify 
us  in  dividing  them  into  separate  architectural  spheres. 
In  Chiapas,  for  example,  we  find  the  bas-relief  pre- 
dominant, whether  in  stone  or  stucco.  In  Honduras 
we  find  a  stiffness  of  design  which  implies  an  older 
type  of  architecture,  along  with  caryatides  and  memorial 
pillars  of  human  shape.  In  Guatemala,  again,  we  find 
traces  of  the  employment  of  wood.  As  the  civilisation 
of  the  Maya  cannot  be  well  comprehended  without 
some  knowledge  of  their  architecture,  and  as  that  art 
was  unquestionably  their  national  forte  and  the  thing 
which  most  sharply  distinguished  them  from  the  semi- 
savage  peoples  that  surrounded  them,  it  will  be  well 
to  consider  it  for  a  space  as  regards  its  better-known 
individual  examples. 

Fascination  of  the  Subject 

He  would  indeed  be  dull  of  imagination  and  of  spirit 
who  could  enter  into  the  consideration  of  such  a  sub- 
ject as  this  without  experiencing  some  thrill  from  the 
mystery  which  surroundj  it.  Although  familiarised 
with  the  study  of  the  Maya  antiquities  by  reason  of  many 
years  of  close  acquaintance  with  it,  the  author  can- 
not approach  the  theme  without  a  feeling  of  the  most 
intense  awe.  We  are  considering  the  memorials  of 
a  race  isolated  for  countless  thousands  of  years  from 
the  rest  of  humanity — a  race  which  by  itself  evolved 
a  civilisation  in  every  respect  capable  of  comparison 
with  those  of  ancient  Egypt  or  Assyria.  In  these 

181 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

impenetrable  forests  and  sun-baked  plains  mighty  works 
were  raised  which  tell  of  a  culture  of  a  lofty  type.  We 
are  aware  that  the  people  who  reared  them  entered  into 
religious  and  perhaps  philosophical  considerations  their 
interpretations  of  whiwh  place  them  upon  a  level  with  the 
most  enlightened  races  of  antiquity ;  but  we  have  only 
stepped  upon  the  margin  of  Maya  history.  What  dread 
secrets,  what  scenes  oforgic  splendour  have  those  carven 
walls  witnessed  ?  What  solemn  priestly  conclave,  what 
magnificence  of  rite,  what  marvels  of  initiation,  have 
these  forest  temples  known  ?  These  things  we  shall 
never  learn.  They  are  hidden  from  us  in  a  gloom  as 
palpable  as  that  of  the  tree-encircled  depths  in  which  we 
find  these  shattered  works  of  a  once  powerful  hierarchy. 

Mysterious  Palenque 

One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  ancient  centres  of 
priestry  domination  is  Palenque,  situated  in  the  modern 
state  of  Chiapas.  This  city  was  first  brought  into 
notice  by  Don  Josd  Calderon  in  1774,  when  he  dis- 
covered no  less  than  eighteen  palaces,  twenty  great 
buildings,  and  a  hundred  and  sixty  houses,  which 
proves  that  in  his  day  the  primeval  forest  had  not  made 
such  inroads  upon  the  remaining  buildings  as  it  has 
during  the  past  few  generations.  There  is  good 
evidence  besides  this  that  Palenque  was  standing  at 
the  time  of  CorteY  conquest  of  Yucatan.  And  here  it 
will  be  well  at  once  to  dispel  any  conception  the  reader 
may  have  formed  concerning  the  vast  antiquity  of 
these  cities  and  the  structures  they  contain.  The  very 
oldest  of  them  cannot  be  of  a  date  anterior  to  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  few  Americanists  of  repute 
would  admit  such  an  antiquity  for  them.  There  may 
be  remains  of  a  fragmentary  nature  here  and  there  in 
Central  America  which  are  relatively  more  ancient. 
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MYSTERIOUS  PALENQUE 

But  no  temple  or  edifice  which  remains  standing  can 
claim  a  greater  antiquity. 

Palenque  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre, 
and  nestles  on  the  lowest  slopes  of  the  Cordilleras. 
Standing  on  the  central  pyramid,  the  eye  is  met  by  a 
ring  of  ruined  palaces  and  temples  raised  upon  artificial 
terraces.  Of  these  the  principal  and  most  imposing 
is  the  Palace,  a  pile  reared  upon  a  single  platform, 
forming  an  irregular  quadrilateral,  with  a  double 
gallery  on  the  east,  north,  and  west  sides,  surrounding 
an  inner  structure  with  a  similar  gallery  and  two  court- 
yards. It  is  evident  that  there  was  little  system  or 
plan  observed  in  the  construction  of  this  edifice,  tn 
unusual  circumstance  in  Maya  architecture.  The 
dwelling  apartments  were  situated  on  the  southern  side 
of  the  structure,  and  here  there  is  absolute  confusion, 
for  buildings  of  all  sorts  and  sizes  jostle  each  other, 
and  are  reared  on  different  levels. 

Our  interest  is  perhaps  at  first  excited  by  three  sub- 
terraneous apartments  down  a  flight  of  gloomy  steps. 
Here  are  to  be  found  three  great  stone  tables,  the 
edges  of  which  are  fretted  with  sculptured  symbols. 
That  these  were  altars  admits  of  little  doubt,  although 
some  visitors  have  not  hesitated  to  call  them  dining- 
tables !  These  constitute  only  one  of  the  many 
puzzles  in  this  building  of  228  feet  frontage,  with  a 
depth  of  1 80  feet,  which  at  the  same  time  is  only  about 
25  feet  high  ! 

On  the  north  side  of  the  Palace  pyramid  the  facade 
of  the  Palace  has  crumbled  into  complete  ruin,  but 
some  evidences  of  an  entrance  arc  still  noticeable. 
There  were  probably  fourteen  doorways  in  all  in  the 
frontage,  with  a  width  of  about  9  feet  each,  the  piers 
of  which  were  covered  with  figures  in  bas-relief.  The 
inside  of  the  galleries  is  also  covered  at  intervals  with 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

similar  designs,  or  medallions,  many  of  which  are 
probably  representations  of  priests  or  priestesses  who 
once  dwelt  within  the  classic  shades  and  practised 
strange  rites  in  the  worship  of  gods  long  since  for- 
gotten. One  of  these  is  of  a  woman  with  delicate 
features  and  high-bred  countenance,  and  the  frame  or 
rim  surrounding  it  is  decorated  in  a  manner  recalling 
the  Louis  XV  style. 

The  east  gallery  is  114  feet  long,  the  north  185  feet, 
and  the  west  102  feet,  so  that,  as  remarked  above,  a 
lack  of  symmetry  is  apparent.  The  great  court  is 
reached  by  a  Mayan  arch  which  leads  on  to  a  staircase, 
on  each  side  of  which  grotesque  human  figures  of  the 
Maya  type  are  sculptured.  Whom  they  are  intended 
to  portray  or  what  rite  they  are  engaged  in  it  would 
indeed  be  difficult  to  say.  That  they  are  priests  may 
be  hazarded,  for  they  appear  to  be  dressed  in  the 
ecclesiastical  maxtli  (girdle),  and  one  seems  to  be 
decorated  with  the  beads  seen  in  the  pictures  of  the 
death-god.  Moreover,  they  are  mitred. 

The  courtyard  is  exceedingly  irregular  in  shape. 
To  the  south  side  is  a  small  building  which  has 
assisted  our  knowledge  of  Maya  mural  decoration  ; 
especially  valuable  is  the  handsome  frieze  with  which 
it  is  adorned,  on  which  we  observe  the  rather  familiar 
feathered  serpent  (Kukulcan  or  Quetzalcoatl).  Every- 
where we  notice  the  flat  Maya  head — a  racial  type, 
perhaps  brought  about  by  deformation  of  the  cranium 
in  youth.  One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the 
Palace  from  an  architectural  point  of  view  is  the  east 
front  of  the  inner  wing,  which  is  perhaps  the  best 
preserved,  and  exhibits  the  most  luxurious  ornamen- 
tation. Two  roofed  galleries  supported  by  six  pillars 
covered  with  bas-reliefs  are  reached  by  a  staircase  on 
which  hieroglyphic  signs  still  remain.  The  reliefs  in 
184 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  INSCRIPTIONS 

cement  are  still  faintly  to  be  discerned  on  the  pillars, 
and  must  have  been  of  great  beauty.  They  represent 
mythological  characters  in  various  attitudes.  Above, 
seven  enormous  heads  frown  on  the  explorer  in  grim 
menace.  The  effect  of  the  entire  fa$ade  is  rich  in  the 
extreme,  even  in  ruin,  and  from  it  we  can  obtain  a  faint 
idea  of  the  splendours  of  this  wonderful  civilisation. 

An  Architectural  Curiosity 

One  of  the  few  towers  to  be  seen  among  the  ruins 
of  Maya  architecture  stands  at  Palenque.  It  is  square 
in  shape  and  three  stories  in  height,  with  sloping  roof, 
and  is  not  unlike  the  belfry  of  some  little  English  village 
church. 

The  building  we  have  been  describing,  although 
traditionally  known  as  a  "  palace,"  was  undoubtedly  a 
great  monastery  or  ecclesiastical  habitation.  Indeed, 
the  entire  city  of  Palenque  was  solely  a  priestly  centre, 
a  place  of  pilgrimage.  The  bas-reliefs  with  their 
representations  of  priests  and  acolytes  prove  this,  as 
does  the  absence  of  warlike  or  monarchical  subjects. 

The  Temple  of  Inscriptions 

The  Temple  of  Inscriptions,  perched  on  an  eminence 
some  40  feet  high,  is  the  largest  edifice  in  Palenque. 
It  has  a  facade  74  feet  long  by  25  feet  deep,  composed 
of  a  great  gallery  which  runs  along  the  entire  front 
of  the  fane.  The  building  has  been  named  from  the 
inscriptions  with  which  certain  flagstones  in  the  central 
apartment  are  covered.  Three  other  temples  occupy  a 
piece  of  rising  ground  close  by.  These  are  the  Temple 
of  the  Sun,  closely  akin  in  type  to  many  Japanese 
temple  buildings  ;  the  Temple  of  the  Cross,  in  which 
a  wonderful  altar-piece  was  discovered  ;  and  the 
Temple  of  the  Cross  No.  II,  In  the  Temple  of  the 

185 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
Cross  the  inscribed  altar  gave  its  name  to  the  build- 
ing. In  the  central  slab  is  a  cross  of  the  American 
pattern,  its  roots  springing  from  the  hideous  head  of 
the  goddess  Chicomccohuatl,  the  Earth-mother,  or 
her  Maya  equivalent.  Its  branches  stretch  to  where 
on  the  right  and  left  stand  two  figures,  evidently  those 
of  a  priest  and  acolyte,  performing  some  mysterious 
rite.  On  the  apex  of  the  tree  is  placed  the  sacred  turkey, 
or  "  Emerald  Fowl,"  to  which  offerings  of  maize  paste 
are  made.  The  whole  is  surrounded  by  inscriptions. 
(Sec  illustration  facing  p.  160.) 

Ake  and  Itzamal 

Thirty  miles  east  of  Merida  lies  Ak6,  the  colossal 
and  primeval  ruins  of  which  speak  of  early  Maya 
occupation.  Here  are  pyramids,  tennis-courts,  and 
gigantic  pillars  which  once  supported  immense  gal- 
leries, all  in  a  state  of  advanced  ruin.  Chief  among 
these  is  the  great  pyramid  and  gallery,  a  mighty 
staircase  rising  toward  lofty  pillars,  and  somewhat 
reminiscent  of  Stonehenge.  For  what  purpose  it  was 
constructed  is  quite  unknown. 

The  House  of  Darkness 

One  ruin,  tradition  calls  "  The  House  of  Darkness." 
Here  no  light  enters  save  that  which  filters  in  by  the 
open  doorway.  The  vaulted  roof  is  lost  in  a  lofty 
gloom.  So  truly  have  the  huge  blocks  of  which  the 
building  is  composed  been  laid  that  not  even  a  needle 
could  be  inserted  between  them.  The  whole  is  coated 
with  a  hard  plaster  or  cement 

The  Palace  of  Owls 

The  Knuc  (Palace  of  Owls),  where  a  beautiful 
frieze  of  diamond-shaped  stones  intermingling  with 
1 86 


The  King  who  loved  a  Princess 
See  page  189 
Gilbert  James 


1 86 


BEARDED  GODS 

spheres  may  be  observed,  is  noteworthy.  All  here  is 
undoubtedly  of  the  first  Yucatec  era,  the  time  when 
the  Maya  first  overran  the  country. 

At  Itzamal  the  chief  object  of  interest  is  the  great 
pyramid  of  Kinich-Kakmo  (The  Sun's  Face  with  Fiery 
Rays),  the  base  of  which  covers  an  area  of  nearly 
650  square  feet.  To  this  shrine  thousands  were  wont 
to  come  in  times  of  panic  or  famine,  and  from  the 
summit,  where  was  housed  the  glittering  idol,  the 
smoke  of  sacrifice  ascended  to  the  cloudless  sky,  whilst 
a  multitude  of  white-robed  priests  and  augurs  chanted 
and  prophesied.  To  the  south  of  this  mighty  pile 
stand  the  ruins  of  the  Ppapp-Hol-Chac  (The  House 
of  Heads  and  Lightnings),  the  abode  of  the  chief 
priest. 

Itzamna's  Fane 

At  Itzamal,  too,  stood  one  of  the  chief  temples  of  the 
great  god  Itzamna,  the  legendary  founder  of  the  Maya 
Empire.  Standing  on  a  lofty  pyramid,  four  roads 
radiated  from  it,  leading  to  Tabasco,  Guatemala,  and 
Chiapas  ;  and  here  they  brought  the  halt,  the  maimed, 
and  the  blind,  aye,  even  the  dead,  for  succour  and 
resurrection,  such  faith  had  they  in  the  mighty  power 
of  Kab-ul  (The  Miraculous  Hand),  as  they  designated 
the  deity.  The  fourth  road  ran  to  the  sacred  isle 
of  Cozumcl,  where  first  the  men  of  Spain  found  the 
Maya  cross,  and  supposed  it  to  prove  that  St.  Thomas 
had  discovered  the  American  continent  in  early  times, 
and  had  converted  the  natives  to  a  Christianity  which 
had  become  debased. 

Bearded  Gods 

To  the  west  arose  another  pyramid,  on  the  summit 
of  which  was  built  the  palace  of  Hunpictok  (The 

187 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
Commander-in-chief  of  Eight  Thousand  Flints),  in 
allusion,  probably,  to  the  god  of  lightning,  Hurakan, 
whose  gigantic  face,  once  dominating  the  basement 
wall,  has  now  disappeared.  This  face  possessed  huge 
mustachios,  appendages  unknown  to  the  Maya  race  ; 
and,  indeed,  we  are  struck  with  the  frequency  with 
which  Mexican  and  Mayan  gods  and  heroes  are 
adorned  with  beards  and  other  hirsute  ornaments  both 
on  the  monuments  and  in  the  manuscripts.  Was  the 
original  governing  class  a  bearded  race  ?  It  is  scarcely 
probable.  Whence,  then,  the  ever-recurring  beard  and 
moustache  ?  These  may  have  been  developed  in  the 
priestly  class  by  constant  ceremonial  shaving,  which 
often  produces  a  thin  beard  in  the  Mongolians — as 
witness  the  modern  Japanese,  who  in  imitating  a 
custom  of  the  West  often  succeed  in  producing  quite 
respectable  beards. 

A  Colossal  Head 

Not  far  away  is  to  be  found  a  gigantic  head,  probably 
that  of  the  god  Itzamna.  It  is  13  feet  in  height,  and 
the  features  were  formed  by  first  roughly  tracing  them 
in  rubble,  and  afterwards  coating  the  whole  with 
plaster.  The  figure  is  surrounded  by  spirals,  symbols 
of  wind  or  speech.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  pyramid 
alluded  to  above  is  found  a  wonderful  bas-relief  repre- 
senting a  tiger  couchant,  with  a  human  head  of  the  Maya 
type,  probably  depicting  one  of  the  early  ancestors  of 
the  Maya,  Balam-Quitze  (Tiger  with  the  Sweet  Smile), 
of  whom  we  read  in  the  Popol  Vuh. 

Chichen-Itza 

At  Chichen-Itza,  in  Yucatan,  the  chief  wonder  is  the 
gigantic  pyramid-temple  known  as  El  Castillo.  It  is 
reached  by  a  steep  flight  of  steps,  and  from  it  the  vast 
188 


Teocalli  or  Pyramid  of  Papantla 
Photo  C.  B.  Waitc,  Mezico 


The  Nunnery,  Chichen-Itza 

Photo  C.  B.  Waite,  Mexico 


188 


THE  NUNNERY 

ruins  of  Chichen  radiate  in  a  circular  manner.  To 
the  east  is  the  market-place,  to  the  north  a  mighty 
temple,  and  a  tennis-court,  perhaps  the  best  example 
of  its  kind  in  Yucatan,  whilst  to  the  west  stand  the 
Nunnery  and  the  Chichan-Chob,  or  prison.  Con- 
cerning Chichen-Itza  Cogolludo  tells  the  following 
story :  "  A  king  of  Chichen  called  Canek  fell 
desperately  in  love  with  a  young  princess,  who, 
whether  she  did  not  return  his  affection  or  whether 
she  was  compelled  to  obey  a  parental  mandate,  married 
a  more  powerful  Yucatec  cacique.  The  discarded  lover, 
unable  to  bear  his  loss,  and  moved  by  love  and  despair, 
armed  his  dependents  and  suddenly  fell  upon  his 
successful  rival.  Then  the  gaiety  of  the  feast  was 
exchanged  for  the  din  of  war,  and  amidst  the  confusion 
the  Chichen  prince  disappeared,  carrying  off  the  beauti- 
ful bride.  But  conscious  that  his  power  was  less  than 
his  rival's,  and  fearing  his  vengeance,  he  fled  the 
country  with  most  of  his  vassals."  It  is  a  historical 
fact  that  the  inhabitants  of  Chichen  abandoned  their 
city,  but  whether  for  the  reason  given  in  this  story  or 
not  cannot  be  discovered. 

The  Nunnery 

The  Nunnery  at  Chichen  is  a  building  of  great 
beauty  of  outline  and  decoration,  the  frieze  above  the 
doorway  and  the  fretted  ornamentation  of  the  upper 
story  exciting  the  admiration  of  most  writers  on  the 
subject.  Here  dwelt  the  sacred  women,  the  chief  of 
whom,  like  their  male  prototypes,  were  dedicated  to 
Kukulcan  and  regarded  with  much  reverence.  The 
base  of  the  building  is  occupied  by  eight  large  figures, 
and  over  the  door  is  the  representation  of  a  priest  with 
a  panache,  whilst  a  row  of  gigantic  heads  crowns  the 
north  fa9ade.  Here,  too,  are  figures  of  the  wind-god, 

189 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

with  projecting  lips,  which  many  generations  of  anti- 
quarians took  for  heads  of  elephants  with  waving 
trunks  !  The  entire  building  is  one  of  the  gems  of 
Central  American  architecture,  and  delights  the  eye  of 
archaeologist  and  artist  alike.  In  El  Castillo  are 
found  wonderful  bas-reliefs  depicting  bearded  men, 
evidently  the  priests  of  Quetzalcoatl,  himself  bearded, 
and  to  the  practised  eye  one  of  these  would  appear  to 
be  wearing  a  false  hirsute  appendage,  as  kings  were  wont 
to  do  in  ancient  Egypt.  Were  these  beards  artificial 
and  symbolical? 

The  "Writing  in  the  Dark" 

The  Akab-sib  (Writing  in  the  Dark)  is  a  bas- 
relief  found  on  the  lintel  of  an  inner  door  at  the 
extremity  of  the  building.  It  represents  a  figure  seated 
before  a  vase,  with  outstretched  forefinger,  and  whence 
it  got  its  traditional  appellation  it  would  be  hard  to  say, 
unless  the  person  represented  is  supposed  to  be  in  the 
act  of  writing.  The  figure  is  surrounded  by  inscrip- 
tions. At  Chichen  were  found  a  statue  of  Tlaloc,  the 
god  of  rain  or  moisture,  and  immense  torsos  repre- 
senting Kukulcan.  There  also  was  a  terrible  well 
into  which  men  were  cast  in  time  of  drought  as  a 

O 

propitiation  to  the  rain-god. 

Kabah 

At  Kabah  there  is  a  marvellous  frontage  which  strik- 
ingly recalls  that  of  a  North  American  Indian  totem- 
house  in  its  fantastic  wealth  of  detail.  The  ruins  are 
scattered  over  a  large  area,  and  must  all  have  been  at 
one  time  painted  in  brilliant  colours.  Here  two  horses' 
heads  in  stone  were  unearthed,  showing  that  the  natives 
had  copied  faithfully  the  steeds  of  the  conquering 
Spaniards.  Nothing  is  known  of  the  history  of  Kabah, 


I  -v. .    A 

id^'-^*^ 

SB  — -~  §<-'     -  -   ^ 


Details  of  the  Nunnery  at  Chichen-Itza 

.Photo  C.  B.  Waite,  Mexico 


I90 


THE  DWARFS  HOUSE 

but  its  neighbour,  Uxmal,  fifteen  miles  distant,  is  much 
more  famous. 

Uzmal 

The  imposing  pile  of  the  Casa  del  Gobernador 
(Governor's  Palace,  so  called)  at  Uxmal  is  perhaps  the 
best  known  and  described  of  all  the  aboriginal  buildings 
of  Central  America.  It  occupies  three  successive  colossal 
terraces,  and  its  frieze  runs  in  a  line  of  325  feet,  and  is 
divided  into  panels,  each  of  which  frames  a  gigantic  head 
of  priest  or  deity.  The  striking  thing  concerning  this 
edifice  is  that  although  it  has  been  abandoned  for  over 
three  hundred  years  it  is  still  almost  as  fresh  architec- 
turally as  when  it  left  the  builder's  hands.  Here  and  there 
a  lintel  has  fallen,  or  stones  have  been  removed  in  a  spirit 
of  vandalism  to  assist  in  the  erection  of  a  neighbouring 
hacienda,  but  on  the  whole  we  possess  in  it  the  most 
unspoiled  piece  of  Yucatec  building  in  existence.  On 
the  side  of  the  palace  where  stands  the  main  entrance, 
directly  over  the  gateway,  is  the  most  wonderful  fret- 
work and  ornamentation,  carried  out  in  high  relief,  above 
which  soar  three  eagles  in  hewn  stone,  surmounted  by 
a  plumed  human  head.  In  the  plinth  are  three  heads, 
which  in  type  recall  the  Roman,  surrounded  by  inscrip- 
tions. A  clear  proof  of  the  comparative  lateness  of  the 
period  in  which  Uxmal  was  built  is  found  in  the  circum- 
stance that  all  the  lintels  over  the  doorways  are  of 
wood,  of  which  much  still  exists  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation.  Many  of  the  joists  of  the  roofs  were  also 
of  timber,  and  were  fitted  into  the  stonework  by  means 
of  specially  carved  ends. 

The  Dwarfs  House 

There  is  also  a  nunnery  which  forcibly  recalls  that  at 
Chichcn,  and  is  quite  as  elaborate  and  flamboyant  in  its 

191 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

architectural  design.  But  the  real  mystery  at  Uxmal 
is  the  Casa  del  Adivino  (The  Prophet's  House),  also 
locally  known  as  "The  Dwarfs  House."  It  consists  of 
two  portions,  one  of  which  is  on  the  summit  of  an  arti- 
ficial pyramid,  whilst  the  other,  a  small  but  beautifully 
finished  chapel,  is  situated  lower  down  facing  the  town. 
The  loftier  building  is  reached  by  an  exceedingly  steep 
staircase,  and  bears  every  evidence  of  having  been  used 
as  a  sanctuary,  for  here  were  discovered  cacao  and  copal, 
recently  burnt,  by  Cogolludo  as  late  as  1656,  which  is 
good  evidence  that  the  Yucatecs  did  not  all  at  once 
abandon  their  ancient  faith  at  the  promptings  of  the 
Spanish  fathers. 

The  Legend  of  the  Dwarf 

In  his  Travels  in  Yucatan  Stephens  has  a  legend  relat- 
ing to  this  house  which  may  well  be  given  in  his  own 
words  :  "  An  old  woman,"  he  says,  "  lived  alone  in  her 
hut,  rarely  leaving  her  chimney-corner.  She  was  much 
distressed  at  having  no  children,  and  in  her  grief  one  day 
took  an  egg,  wrapped  it  up  carefully  in  cotton  cloth,  and 
put  it  in  a  corner  of  her  hut.  She  looked  every  day  in 
great  anxiety,  but  no  change  in  the  egg  was  observable. 
One  morning,  however,  she  found  the  shell  broken,  and 
a  lovely  tiny  creature  was  stretching  out  its  arms  to  her. 
The  old  woman  was  in  raptures.  She  took  it  to  her 
heart,  gave  it  a  nurse,  and  was  so  careful  of  it  that  at 
the  end  of  a  year  the  baby  walked  and  talked  as  well  as 
a  grown-up  man.  But  he  stopped  growing.  The  good 
old  woman  in  her  joy  and  delight  exclaimed  that  the 
baby  should  be  a  great  chief.  One  day  she  told  him  to  go 
to  the  king's  palace  and  engage  him  in  a  trial  of  strength. 
The  dwarf  begged  hard  not  to  be  sent  on  such  an  enter- 
prise. But  the  old  woman  insisted  on  his  going,  and  he 
was  obliged  to  obey.  When  ushered  into  the  presence 
192 


The  Old  Woman  who  took  an  Egg  home 
Gilbert  James 


192 


THE  LEGEND  OF  THE  DWARF 
of  the  sovereign  he  threw  down  his  gauntlet.  The 
latter  smiled,  and  asked  him  to  lift  a  stone  of  three 
aro^es  (75  lb.).  The  child  returned  crying  to  his 
mother,  who  sent  him  back,  saying,  *  If  the  king  can  lift 
the  stone,  you  can  lift  it  too.'  The  king  did  take  it  up, 
but  so  did  the  dwarf.  His  strength  was  tried  in  many 
other  ways,  but  all  the  king  did  was  as  easily  done  by  the 
dwarf.  Wroth  at  being  outdone  by  so  puny  a  creature, 
the  prince  told  the  dwarf  that  unless  he  built  a  palace 
loftier  than  any  in  the  city  he  should  die.  The  affrighted 
dwarf  returned  to  the  old  woman,  who  bade  him  not  to 
despair,  and  the  next  morning  they  both  awoke  in  the 
palace  which  is  still  standing.  The  king  saw  the  palace 
with  amazement.  He  instantly  sent  for  the  dwarf,  and 
desired  him  to  collect  two  bundles  of  cogoiol  (a  kind  of 
hard  wood),  with  one  of  which  he  would  strike  the  dwarf 
on  the  head,  and  consent  to  be  struck  in  return  by  his 
tiny  adversary.  The  latter  again  returned  to  his  mother 
moaning  and  lamenting.  But  the  old  woman  cheered 
him  up,  and,  placing  a  tortilla  on  his  head,  sent  him  back 
to  the  king.  The  trial  took  place  in  the  presence  of  all 
the  state  grandees.  The  king  broke  the  whole  of  his 
bundle  on  the  dwarfs  head  without  hurting  him  in  the 
least,  seeing  which  he  wished  to  save  his  own  head  from 
the  impending  ordeal  ;  but  his  word  had  been  passed 
before  his  assembled  court,  and  he  could  not  well  refuse. 
The  dwarf  struck,  and  at  the  second  blow  the  king's  skull 
was  broken  to  pieces.  The  spectators  immediately  pro- 
claimed the  victorious  dwarf  their  sovereign.  After  this 
the  old  woman  disappeared.  But  in  the  village  of  Mani, 
fifty  miles  distant,  is  a  deep  well  leading  to  a  subterraneous 
passage  which  extends  as  far  as  Merida.  In  this  passage 
is  an  old  woman  sitting  on  the  bank  of  a  river  shaded 
by  a  great  tree,  having  a  serpent  by  her  side.  She  sells 
water  in  small  quantities,  accepting  no  money,  for  she 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  ANP  PERU 

must  have  human  beings,  innocent  babies,  which  are 
devoured  by  the  serpent.  This  old  woman  is  the  dwarf's 
mother." 

The  interpretation  of  this  myth  is  by  no  means  diffi- 
cult. The  old  woman  is  undoubtedly  the  rain-goddess, 
the  dwarf  the  Man  of  the  Sun  who  emerges  from  the 
cosmic  egg.  In  Yucatan  dwarfs  were  sacred  to  the 
sun-god,  and  were  occasionally  sacrificed  to  him,  for 
reasons  which  appear  obscure. 

The  Mound  of  Sacrifice 

Another  building  at  Uxmal  the  associations  of  which 
render  it  of  more  than  passing  interest  is  the  Pyramid 
of  Sacrifice,  an  edifice  built  on  the  plan  of  the  Mexican 
teocalli.  Indeed,  it  is  probably  of  Aztec  origin,  and 
may  even  have  been  erected  by  the  mercenaries  who 
during  the  fifteenth  century  swarmed  from  Mexico 
into  Yucatan  and  Guatemala  to  take  service  with  the 
rival  chieftains  who  carried  on  civil  war  in  those  states. 
Beside  this  is  another  mound  which  was  crowned  by  a 
very  beautiful  temple,  now  in  an  advanced  state  of  ruin. 
The  "  Pigeon  House  "  is  an  ornate  pile  with  pinnacles 
pierced  by  large  openings  which  probably  served  as 
dovecotes.  The  entire  architecture  of  Uxmal  displays 
a  type  more  primitive  than  that  met  elsewhere  in 
Yucatan.  There  is  documentary  evidence  to  prove 
that  so  late  as  1673  the  Indians  still  worshipped  in  the 
ruins  of  Uxmal,  where  they  burnt  copal,  and  performed 
"  other  detestable  sacrifices."  So  that  even  a  hundred 
and  fifty  years  of  Spanish  rule  had  not  sufficed  to  wean 
the  natives  from  the  worship  of  the  older  gods  to 
whom  their  fathers  had  for  generations  bowed  down. 
This  would  also  seem  conclusive  evidence  that  the 
rums  of  Uxmal  at  least  were  the  work  of  the  existing 
race. 


THE  HORSE-GOD 

The  Phantom  City 

In  his  Travels  in  Central  America  Stephens  recounts 
a  fascinating  story  told  him  by  a  priest  of  Santa 
Cruz  del  Quiche,  to  the  effect  that  four  days'  journey 
from  that  place  a  great  Indian  city  was  to  be  seen, 
densely  populated,  and  preserving  the  ancient  civilisa- 
tion of  the  natives.  He  had,  indeed,  beheld  it  from 
the  summit  of  a  cliff,  shining  in  glorious  whiteness  many 
leagues  away.  This  was  perhaps  Lorillard  City,  dis- 
covered by  Suarez,  and  afterwards  by  Charnay.  In  general 
type  Lorillard  closely  resembles  Palenque.  Here  was 
found  a  wonderfully  executed  stone  idol,  which  Charnay 
thought  represented  a  different  racial  type  from  that 
seen  in  the  other  Central  American  cities.  The  chief 
finds  of  interest  in  this  ancient  city  were  the  intricate 
bas-reliefs,  one  over  the  central  door  of  a  temple, 
probably  a  symbolic  representation  of  Quetzalcoatl, 
who  holds  the  rain-cross,  in  both  hands,  and  is  seen 
vis-a-vis  with  an  acolyte,  also  holding  the  symbol, 
though  it  is  possible  that  the  individual  represented 
may  have  been  the  high-priest  of  Quetzalcoatl  or 
Kukulcan.  Another  bas-relief  represents  a  priest 
sacrificing  to  Kukulcan  by  passing  a  rope  of  maguey 
fibre  over  his  tongue  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  blood 
— an  instance  of  the  substitution  in  sacrifice  of  the  part 
for  the  whole. 

The  Horse'God 

At  Peten-Itza,  Cort6s  left  his  horse,  which  had  fallen 
sick,  to  the  care  of  the  Indians.  The  animal  died  under 
their  mismanagement  and  because  of  the  food  offered 
it,  and  the  terrified  natives,  fancying  it  a  divine  being, 
raised  an  image  of  it,  and  called  it  Izimin  Chac 
(Thunder  and  Lightning),  because  they  had  seen 

'95 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

its  rider  discharge  a  firearm,  and  they  imagined  that  the 
flash  and  the  report  had  proceeded  from  the  creature. 
The  sight  of  the  idol  aroused  such  wrath  in  the  zealous 
bosom  of  a  certain  Spanish  monk  that  he  broke  it  with 
a  huge  stone — and,  but  for  the  interference  of  the 
cacique,  would  have  suffered  death  for  his  temerity. 
Peten  was  a  city  "  filled  with  idols,"  as  was  Tayasal, 
close  at  hand,  where  in  the  seventeenth  century  no  less 
than  nine  new  temples  were  built,  which  goes  to  prove 
that  the  native  religion  was  by  no  means  extinct.  One 
of  these  new  temples,  according  to  Villagutierre,  had  a 
Spanish  balcony  of  hewn  stone  !  In  the  Temple  of 
the  Sun  at  Tikal,  an  adjoining  city,  is  a  wonderful 
altar  panel,  representing  an  unknown  deity,  and  here 
also  are  many  of  those  marvellously  carved  idols  of 
which  Stephens  gives  such  capital  illustrations  in  his 
fascinating  book. 

Copan 

Copan,  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  these  wondrous 
city-centres,  the  name  of  which  has,  indeed,  become 
almost  a  household  word,  is  in  the  same  district  as  the 
towns  just  described,  and  abounds  chiefly  in  monolithic 
images.  It  yielded  after  a  desperate  struggle  to 
Hernandez  de  Chaves,  one  of  Alvarado's  lieutenants, 
in  1530.  The  monolithic  images  so  abundantly  re- 
presented here  are  evolved  from  the  stelae  and  the  bas- 
relief,  and  are  not  statues  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
term,  as  they  are  not  completely  cut  away  from  the 
stone  background  out  of  which  they  were  carved.  An 
altar  found  at  Copan  exhibits  real  skill  in  sculpture, 
the  head-dresses,  ornaments,  and  expressions  of  the 
eight  figures  carved  on  its  sides  being  elaborate  in  the 
extreme  and  exceedingly  lifelike.  Here  again  we 
notice  a  fresh  racial  type,  which  goes  to  prove  that  one 
196 


A  PLACE  OF  SEPULTURE 

race  alone  cannot  have  been  responsible  for  these 
marvellous  ruined  cities  and  all  that  they  contain  and 
signify.  We  have  to  imagine  a  shifting  of  races  and 
a  fluctuation  of  peoples  in  Central  America  such  as  we 
know  took  place  in  Europe  and  Asia  before  we  can 
rightly  understand  the  ethnological  problems  of  the 
civilised  sphere  of  the  New  World,  and  any  theory 
which  does  not  take  due  account  of  such  conditions  is 
doomed  to  failure. 

Mhla 

We  now  come  to  the  last  of  these  stupendous 
remnants  of  a  vanished  civilisation — Mitla,  by  no 
means  the  least  of  the  works  of  civilised  man  in 
Central  America.  At  the  period  of  the  conquest  the 
city  occupied  a  wide  area,  but  at  the  present  time  only 
six  palaces  and  three  ruined  pyramids  are  left  standing. 
The  great  palace  is  a  vast  edifice  in  the  shape  of  the 
letter  T,  and  measures  130  feet  in  its  greater  dimension, 
with  an  apartment  of  a  like  size.  Six  monolithic 
columns  which  supported  the  roof  still  stand  in  gigantic 
isolation,  but  the  roof  itself  has  long  fallen  in.  A 
dark  passage  leads  to  the  inner  court,  and  the  walls  of 
this  are  covered  with  mosaic  work  in  panels  which 
recalls  somewhat  the  pattern  known  as  the  "  Greek 
fret."  The  lintels  over  the  doorways  are  of  huge 
blocks  of  stone  nearly  eighteen  feet  long.  Of  this 
building  Viollet-le-Duc  says  :  "The  monuments  of 
Greece  and  Rome  in  their  best  time  can  alone  compare 
with  the  splendour  of  this  great  edifice." 

A  Place  of  Sepulture 

The  ruins  at  Mitla  bear  no  resemblance  to  those 
of  Mexico  or  Yucatan,  either  as  regards  architecture 
or  ornamentation,  for  whereas  the  Yucatec  buildings 

197 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
possess  overlapping  walls,  the  palaces  of  Mitla  consist 
of  perpendicular  walls  intended  to  support  flat  roofs. 
Of  these  structures  the  second  and  fourth  palaces  alone 
are  in  such  a  state  of  preservation  as  to  permit  of 
general  description.  The  second  palace  shows  by  its 
sculptured  lintel  and  -two  inner  columns  that  the  same 
arrangement  was  observed  in  its  construction  as  in  the 
great  palace  just  described.  The  fourth  palace  has  on 
its  southern  fafade  oblong  panels  and  interesting  carya- 
tides or  pillars  in  the  shape  of  human  figures.  These 
palaces  consisted  of  four  upper  apartments,  finely  sculp- 
tured, and  a  like  number  of  rooms  on  the  lower  story, 
which  was  occupied  by  the  high-priest,  and  to  which  the 
king  came  to  mourn  on  the  demise  of  a  relative.  Here, 
too,  the  priests  were  entombed,  and  in  an  adjoining 
room  the  idols  were  kept.  Into  a  huge  underground 
chamber  the  bodies  of  eminent  warriors  and  sacrificial 
victims  were  cast.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  identify 
Mitla  with  Mictlan,  the  Mexican  Hades,  and  there  is 
every  reason  to  suppose  that  the  identification  is  cor- 
rect. It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  Mictlan  was  as 
much  a  place  of  the  dead  as  a  place  of  punishment,  as 
was  the  Greek  Hades,  and  therefore  might  reasonably 
signify  a  place  of  sepulture,  such  as  Mitla  undoubtedly 
was.  The  following  passages  from  the  old  historians 
of  Mitla,  Torquemada  and  Burgoa,  throw  much  light 
on  this  aspect  of  the  city,  and  besides  are  full  of  the 
most  intense  interest  and  curious  information,  so  that 
they  may  be  given  in  extenso.  But  before  passing  on 
to  them  we  should  for  a  moment  glance  at  Seler's  sug- 
gestion that  the  American  race  imagined  that  their 
ancestors  had  originally  issued  from  the  underworld 
through  certain  caverns  into  the  light  of  day,  and  that 
this  was  the  reason  why  Mitla  was  not  only  a  burial- 
place  but  a  sanctuary. 
198 


Great  Palace  of  Mitla 

By  permission  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 


Interior  of  an  Apartment  in  the  Palace  of  Mitla 

Photo  C.  B.  Watte,  Mexico 


198 


AN  OLD  DESCRIPTION  OF  MITLA 

An  Old  Description  of  Mttla 

Of  Mitla  Father  Torquemada  writes  : 

"When  some  monks  of  my  order,  the  Franciscan, 
passed,  preaching  and  shriving,  through  the  province 
of  Zapoteca,  whose  capital  city  is  Tehuantepec,  they 
came  to  a  village  which  was  called  Mictlan,  that  is, 
Underworld  [Hell].  Besides  mentioning  the  large 
number  of  people  in  the  village  they  told  of  buildings 
which  were  prouder  and  more  magnificent  than  any 
which  they  had  hitherto  seen  in  New  Spain.  Among 
them  was  a  temple  of  the  evil  spirit  and  living-rooms 
for  his  demoniacal  servants,  and  among  other  fine 
things  there  was  a  hall  with  ornamented  panels,  which 
were  constructed  of  stone  in  a  variety  of  arabesques  and 
other  very  remarkable  designs.  There  were  doorways 
there,  each  one  of  which  was  built  of  but  three  stones, 
two  upright  at  the  sides  and  one  across  them,  in  such 
a  manner  that,  although  these  doorways  were  very  high 
and  broad,  the  stones  sufficed  for  their  entire  construc- 
tion. They  were  so  thick  and  broad  that  we  were 
assured  there  were  few  like  them.  There  was  another 
hall  in  these  buildings,  or  rectangular  temples,  which 
was  erected  entirely  on  round  stone  pillars,  very  high 
and  very  thick,  so  thick  that  two  grown  men  could 
scarcely  encircle  them  with  their  arms,  nor  could  one 
of  them  reach  the  finger-tips  of  the  other.  These 
pillars  were  all  in  one  piece,  and,  it  was  said,  the  whole 
shaft  of  a  pillar  measured  5  ells  from  top  to  bottom, 
and  they  were  very  much  like  those  of  the  Church  of 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  in  Rome,  very  skilfully  made 
and  polished." 

Father  Burgoa  gives  a  more  exact  description.  He 
says: 

"  The  Palace  of  the  Living  and  of  the  Dead  was  built 

199 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
for  the  use  of  this  person  [the  high-priest  of  the 
Zapotecs].  .  .  .  They  built  this  magnificent  house  or 
pantheon  in  the  shape  of  a  rectangle,  with  portions 
rising  above  the  earth  and  portions  built  down  into 
the  earth,  the  latter  in  the  hole  or  cavity  which  was 
found  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  ingeniously 
made  the  chambers  of  equal  size  by  the  manner  of 
joining  them,  leaving  a  spacious  court  in  the  middle  ; 
and  in  order  to  secure  four  equal  chambers  they 
accomplished  what  barbarian  heathen  (as  they  were) 
could  only  achieve  by  the  powers  and  skill  of  an 
architect.  It  is  not  known  in  what  stone-pit  they 
quarried  the  pillars,  which  are  so  thick  that  two  men 
can  scarcely  encircle  them  with  their  arms.  These  are, 
to  be  sure,  mere  shafts  without  capital  or  pedestal,  but 
they  are  wonderfully  regular  and  smooth,  and  they  are 
about  5  ells  high  and  in  one  piece.  These  served  to 
support  the  roof,  which  consists  of  stone  slabs  instead 
of  beams.  The  slabs  are  about  2  ells  long,  I  ell  broad, 
and  half  an  ell  thick,  extending  from  pillar  to  pillar. 
The  pillars  stand  in  a  row,  one  behind  the  other,  in 
order  to  receive  the  weight.  The  stone  slabs  are  so 
regular  and  so  exactly  fitted  that,  without  any  mortar 
or  cement,  at  the  joints  they  resemble  mortised  beams. 
The  four  rooms,  which  are  very  spacious,  are  arranged 
in  exactly  the  same  way  and  covered  with  the  same 
kind  of  rogfing.  But  in  the  construction  of  the  walls 
the  greatest  architects  of  the  earth  have  been  surpassed, 
as  I  have  not  found  this  kind  of  architecture  described 
either  among  the  Egyptians  or  among  the  Greeks,  for 
they  begin  at  the  base  with  a  narrow  outline  and,  as 
the  structure  rises  in  height,  spread  out  in  wide  copings 
at  the  top,  so  that  the  upper  part  exceeds  the  base  in 
breadth  and  looks  as  if  it  would  fall  over.  The  inner 
side  of  the  walls  consists  of  a  mortar  or  stucco  of  such 
no 


HUMAN  SACRIFICE  AT  MITLA 
hardness  that  no  one  knows  with  what  kind  of  liquid 
it  could  have  been  mixed.  The  outside  is  of  such 
extraordinary  workmanship  that  on  a  masonry  wall 
about  an  ell  in  height  there  are  placed  stone  slabs  with 
a  projecting  edge,  which  form  the  support  for  an  end- 
less number  of  small  white  stones,  the  smallest  of  which 
are  a  sixth  of  an  ell  long,  half  as  broad,  and  a  quarter 
as  thick,  and  which  are  as  smooth  and  regular  as  if 
they  had  all  come  from  one  mould.  They  had  so  many 
of  these  stones  that,  setting  them  in,  one  beside 'the 
other,  they  formed  with  them  a  large  number  of 
different  beautiful  geometric  designs,  each  an  ell  broad 
and  running  the  whole  length  of  the  wall,  each  varying 
in  pattern  up  to  the  crowning  piece,  which  was  the 
finest  of  all.  And  what  has  always  seemed  inexplicable 
to  the  greatest  architects  is  the  adjustment  of  these 
little  stones  without  a  single  handful  of  mortar,  and 
the  fact  that  without  tools,  with  nothing  but  hard 
stones  and  sand,  they  could  achieve  such  solid  work 
that,  though  the  whole  structure  is  very  old  and  no 
one  knows  who  made  it,  it  has  been  preserved  until 
the  present  day. 

Human  Sacrifice  at  Mitla 

"  I  carefully  examined  these  monuments  some  thirty 
years  ago  in  the  chambers  above  ground,  which  are 
constructed  of  the  same  size  and  in  the  same  way  as 
those  below  ground,  and,  though  single  pieces  were  in 
ruins  because  some  stones  had  become  loosened,  there 
was  still  much  to  admire.  The  doorways  were  very 
large,  the  sides  of  each  being  of  single  stones  of  the 
same  thickness  as  the  wall,  and  the  lintel  was  made 
out  of  another  stone  which  held  the  two  lower  ones 
together  at  the  top.  There  were  four  chambers  above 
ground  and  four  below.  The  latter  were  arranged 

201 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

according  to  their  purpose  in  such  a  way  that  one  front 
chamber  served  as  chapel  and  sanctuary  for  the  idols, 
which  were  placed  on  a  great  stone  which  served  as  an 
altar.  And  for  the  more  important  feasts  which  they 
celebrated  with  sacrifices,  or  at  the  burial  of  a  king  or 
great  lord,  the  high-priest  instructed  the  lesser  priests 
or  the  subordinate  temple  officials  who  served  him  to 
prepare  the  chapel  and  his  vestments  and  a  large 
quantity  of  the  incense  used  by  them.  And  then  he 
descended  with  a  great  retinue,  while  none  of  the 
common  people  saw  him  or  dared  to  look  in  his  face, 
convinced  that  if  they  did  so  they  would  fall  dead  to 
the  earth  as  a  punishment  for  their  boldness.  And 
when  he  entered  the  chapel  they  put  on  him  a  long 
white  cotton  garment  made  like  an  alb,  and  over  that  a 
garment  shaped  like  a  dalmatic,  which  was  embroidered 
with  pictures  of  wild  beasts  and  birds  ;  and  they  put  a 
cap  on  his  head,  and  on  his  feet  a  kind  of  shoe  woven 
of  many  coloured  feathers.  And  when  he  had  put  on 
these  garments  he  walked  with  solemn  mien  and 
measured  step  to  the  altar,  bowed  low  before  the  idols, 
renewed  the  incense,  and  then  in  quite  unintelligible 
murmurs  he  began  to  converse  with  these  images, 
these  depositories  of  infernal  spirits,  and  continued  in 
this  sort  of  prayer  with  hideous  grimaces  and  writhings, 
uttering  inarticulate  sounds,  which  filled  all  present 
with  fear  and  terror,  till  he  came  out  of  that  diabolical 
trance  and  told  those  standing  around  the  lies  and 
fabrications  which  the  spirit  had  imparted  to  him  or 
which  he  had  invented  himself.  When  human  beings 
were  sacrificed  the  ceremonies  were  multiplied,  and  the 
assistants  of  the  high-priest  stretched  the  victim  out 
upon  a  large  stone,  baring  his  breast,  which  they  tore 
open  with  a  great  stone  knife,  while  the  body  writhed 
in  fearful  convulsions,  and  they  laid  the  heart  bare, 

201 


42   e 

cd    < 


o  •£ 


-     £ 

fO  r, 

53     a 

f>* 

w 


LIVING  SACRIFICES 

ripping  it  out,  and  with  it  the  soul,  which  the  devil 
took,  while  they  carried  the  heart  to  the  high-priest 
that  he  might  offer  it  to  the  idols  by  holding  it  to  their 
mouths,  among  other  ceremonies  ;  and  the  body  was 
thrown  into  the  burial-place  of  their  *  blessed,'  as  they 
called  them.  And  if  after  the  sacrifice  he  felt  inclined 
to  detain  those  who  begged  any  favour  he  sent  them 
word  by  the  subordinate  priests  not  to  leave  their 
houses  till  their  gods  were  appeased,  and  he  com- 
manded them  to  do  penance  meanwhile,  to  fast  and  to 
speak  with  no  woman,  so  that,  until  this  father  of  sin 
had  interceded  for  the  absolution  of  the  penitents  and 
had  declared  the  gods  appeased,  they  did  not  dare  to 
cross  their  thresholds. 

"  The  second  (underground)  chamber  was  the  burial- 
place  of  these  high-priests,  the  third  that  of  the  kings 
of  Theozapotlan,  whom  they  brought  hither  richly 
dressed  in  their  best  attire,  feathers,  jewels,  golden 
necklaces,  and  precious  stones,  placing  a  shield  in  the 
left  hand  and  a  javelin  in  the  right,  just  as  they  used 
them  in  war.  And  at  their  burial  rites  great  mourning 
prevailed  ;  the  instruments  which  were  played  made 
mournful  sounds  ;  and  with  loud  wailing  and  con- 
tinuous sobbing  they  chanted  the  life  and  exploits  of 
their  lord  until  they  laid  him  on  the  structure  which 
they  had  prepared  for  this  purpose. 

Living  Sacrifices 

"  The  last  (underground)  chamber  had  a  second 
door  at  the  rear,  which  led  to  a  dark  and  gruesome 
room.  This  was  closed  with  a  stone  slab,  which 
occupied  the  whole  entrance.  Through  this  door  they 
threw  the  bodies  of  the  victims  and  of  the  great  lords 
and  chieftains  who  had  fallen  in  battle,  and  they 
brought  them  from  the  spot  where  they  fell,  even 

203 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

when  it  was  very  far  off,  to  this  burial-place ;  and  so 
great  was  the  barbarous  infatuation  of  those  Indians 
that,  in  the  belief  of  the  happy  life  which  awaited  them, 
many  who  were  oppressed  by  diseases  or  hardships 
begged  this  infamous  priest  to  accept  them  as  living 
sacrifices  and  allow  them  to  enter  through  that  portal 
and  roam  about  in  the  dark  interior  of  the  mountain, 
to  seek  the  feasting-places  of  their  forefathers.  And 
when  any  one  obtained  this  favour  the  servants  of  the 
high-priest  led  him  thither  with  special  ceremonies, 
and  after  they  allowed  him  to  enter  through  the  small 
door  they  rolled  the  stone  before  it  again  and  took 
leave  of  him,  and  the  unhappy  man,  wandering  in  that 
abyss  of  darkness,  died  of  hunger  and  thirst,  beginning 
already  in  life  the  pain  of  his  damnation,  and  on 
account  of  this  horrible  abyss  they  called  this  village 
Liyobaa. 

The  Cavern  of  Death 

"  When  later  there  fell  upon  these  people  the  light 
of  the  Gospel,  its  servants  took  much  trouble  to  instruct 
them,  and  to  find  out  whether  this  error,  common  to  all 
these  nations,  still  prevailed  ;  and  they  learned  from  the 
stories  which  had  been  handed  down  that  all  were  con- 
vinced that  this  damp  cavern  extended  more  than  thirty 
leagues  underground,  and  that  its  roof  was  supported 
by  pillars.  And  there  were  people,  zealous  prelates 
anxious  for  knowledge,  who,  in  order  to  convince  these 
ignorant  people  of  their  error,  went  into  this  cave  accom- 
panied by  a  large  number  of  people  bearing  lighted 
torches  and  firebrands,  and  descended  several  large  steps. 
And  they  soon  came  upon  many  great  buttresses  which 
formed  a  kind  of  street.  They  had  prudently  brought 
a  quantity  of  rope  with  them  to  use  as  guiding-lines, 
that  they  might  not  lose  themselves  in  this  confusing 
204 


PALACE  OF  THE  H1GH-PRIEST 

labyrinth.  And  the  putrefaction  and  the  bad  odour  and 
the  dampness  of  the  earth  were  very  great,  and  there 
was  also  a  cold  wind  which  blew  out  their  torches.  And 
after  they  had  gone  a  short  distance,  fearing  to  be  over- 
powered by  the  stench,  or  to  step  on  poisonous  reptiles, 
of  which  some  had  been  seen,  they  resolved  to  go  out 
again,  and  to  completely  wall  up  this  back  door  01 
hell.  The  four  buildings  above  ground  were  the  only 
ones  which  still  remained  open,  and  they  had  a  court 
and  chambers  like  those  underground ;  and  the  ruins 
of  these  have  lasted  even  to  the  present  day. 

Palace  of  the  High'Priest 

"  One  of  the  rooms  above  ground  was  the  palace  of 
the  high-priest,  where  he  sat  and  slept,  for  the  apart- 
ment offered  room  and  opportunity  for  everything. 
The  throne  was  like  a  high  cushion,  with  a  high  back 
to  lean  against,  all  of  tiger-skin,  stuffed  entirely  with 
delicate  feathers,  or  with  fine  grass  which  was  used  for 
this  purpose.  The  other  seats  were  smaller,  even  when 
the  king  came  to  visit  him.  The  authority  of  this 
devilish  priest  was  so  great  that  there  was  no  one  who 
dared  to  cross  the  court,  and  to  avoid  this  the  other 
three  chambers  had  doors  in  the  rear,  through  which 
even  the  kings  entered.  For  this  purpose  they  had 
alleys  and  passage-ways  on  the  outside  above  and  below, 
by  which  people  could  enter  and  go  out  when  they  came 
to  see  the  high-priest.  .  .  . 

"  The  second  chamber  above  ground  was  that  of  the 
priests  and  the  assistants  of  the  high-priest.  The  third 
was  that  of  the  king  when  he  came.  The  fourth  was  that 
of  the  other  chieftains  and  captains,  and  though  the 
space  was  small  for  so  great  a  number,  and  for  so  many 
different  families,  yet  they  accommodated  themselves 
to  each  other  out  of  respect  for  the  place,  and  avoided 

205 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

dissensions  and  factions.  Furthermore,  there  was  no 
other  administration  of  justice  in  this  place  than  that  of 
the  high-priest,  to  whose  unlimited  power  all  bowed. 

Furniture  of  the  Temples 

"All  the  rooms  were  clean,  and  well  furnished  with 
mats.  It  was  not  the  custom  to  sleep  on  bedsteads, 
however  great  a  lord  might  be.  They  used  very  taste- 
fully braided  mats,  which  were  spread  on  the  floor,  and 
soft  skins  of  animals  and  delicate  fabrics  for  coverings. 
Their  food  consisted  usually  of  animals  killed  in  the 
hunt — deer,  rabbits,  armadillos,  &c.,  and  also  birds, 
which  they  killed  with  snares  or  arrows.  The  bread, 
made  of  their  maize,  was  white  and  well  kneaded. 
Their  drinks  were  always  cold,  made  of  ground  choco- 
late, which  was  mixed  with  water  and  pounded  maize. 
Other  drinks  were  made  of  pulpy  and  of  crushed  fruits, 
which  were  then  mixed  with  the  intoxicating  drink  pre- 
pared from  the  agave  ;  for  since  the  common  people 
were  forbidden  the  use  of  intoxicating  drinks,  there  was 
always  an  abundance  of  these  on  hand." 


CHAPTER  V :  MYTHS  OF  THE  MAYA 

Mythology  of  the  Maya 

OUR  knowledge  of  the  mythology  of  the  Maya 
is  by  no  means  so  full  and  comprehensive 
as  in  the  case  of  Mexican  mythology. 
Traditions  are  few  and  obscure,  and  the  hiero- 
glyphic matter  is  closed  to  us.  But  one  great  mine 
of  Maya-Kiche  mythology  exists  which  furnishes  us 
with  much  information  regarding  Kiche  cosmogony 
and  pseudo-history,  with  here  and  there  an  interesting 
allusion  to  the  various  deities  of  the  Kiche  pantheon. 
This  is  the  Popol  Vuh,  a  volume  in  which  a  little  real 
history  is  mingled  with  much  mythology.  It  was  com- 
posed in  the  form  in  which  we  now  possess  it  by  a 
Christianised  native  of  Guatemala  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  copied  in  Kiche,  in  which  it  was  origin- 
ally written,  by  one  Francisco  Ximenes,  a  monk,  who 
also  added  to  it  a  Spanish  translation. 

The  Lost  "Popol  Vuh" 

For  generations  antiquarians  interested  in  this 
wonderful  compilation  were  aware  that  it  existed 
somewhere  in  Guatemala,  and  many  were  the  regrets 
expressed  regarding  their  inability  to  unearth  it.  A 
certain  Don  Felix  Cabrera  had  made  use  of  it  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  but  the  whereabouts  of  the 
copy  he  had  seen  could  not  be  discovered.  A  Dr.  C. 
Scherzer,  of  Austria,  resolved,  if  possible,  to  discover 
it,  and  paid  a  visit  to  Guatemala  in  1854  for  that  pur- 
pose. After  a  diligent  search  he  succeeded  in  finding 
the  lost  manuscript  in  the  University  of  San  Carlos  in 
the  city  of  Guatemala.  Ximenes,  the  copyist,  had 
placed  it  in  the  library  of  the  convent  of  Chichicasten- 

ango,  whence  it  passed  to  the  San  Carlos  library  in  1830. 

107 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Genuine  Character  of  the  Work 

Much  doubt  has  been  cast  upon  the  genuine  cha- 
racter of  the  Popol  Vuh^  principally  by  persons  who  were 
almost  if  not  entirely  ignorant  of  the  problems  of  pre- 
Columbian  history  in  America.  Its  genuine  character, 
however,  is  by  no  means  difficult  to  prove.  It  has 
been  stated  that  it  is  a  mere  rhhauffe  of  the  known 
facts  of  Maya  history  coloured  by  Biblical  knowledge, 
a  native  version  of  the  Christian  Bible.  But  such  a 
theory  will  not  stand  when  it  is  shown  that  the  matter 
it  contains  squares  with  the  accepted  facts  of  Mexican 
mythology,  upon  which  the  Popol  Vuh  throws  consider- 
able light.  Moreover,  the  entire  work  bears  the  stamp 
of  being  a  purely  native  compilation,  and  has  a  flavour 
of  great  antiquity.  Our  knowledge  of  the  general 
principles  of  mythology,  too,  prepares  us  for  the  un- 
qualified acceptance  of  the  material  of  the  Popol  Vuh^ 
for  we  find  there  the  stories  and  tales,  the  conceptions 
and  ideas  connected  with  early  religion  which  are  the 
property  of  no  one  people,  but  of  all  peoples  and  races 
in  an  early  social  state. 

Likeness  to  other  Pseudo'Histories 

We  find  in  this  interesting  book  a  likeness  to  many 
other  works  of  early  times.  The  Popol  Vuh  is,  indeed, 
of  the  same  genre  and  class  as  the  Heimskringla  of 
Snorre,  the  history  of  Saxo  Grammaticus,  the  Chinese 
history  in  the  Five  Books>  the  Japanese  Nihongi,  and 
many  other  similar  compilations.  But  it  surpasses  all 
these  in  pure  interest  because  it  is  the  only  native 
American  work  that  has  come  down  to  us  from  pre- 
Columbian  times. 

The  name  "Popol  Vuh  "  means  "The  Collection  of 
Written  Leaves,"  which  proves  that  the  book  must 


THE  CREATION-STORY 

have  contained  traditional  matter  reduced  to  writing  at 
a  very  early  period.  It  is,  indeed,  a  compilation  of 
mythological  character,  interspersed  with  pseudo- history, 
which,  as  the  account  reaches  modern  times,  shades 
off  into  pure  history  and  tells  the  deeds  of  authentic 
personages.  The  language  in  which  it  was  written,  the 
Kiche,  was  a  dialect  of  the  Maya-Kiche  tongue  spoken 
at  the  time  of  the  conquest  in  Guatemala,  Honduras, 
and  San  Salvador,  and  still  the  tongue  of  the  native 
populations  in  these  districts. 

The  Creation'Story 

The  beginning  of  this  interesting  book  is  taken  up 
with  the  Kiche  story  of  the  creation,  and  what  occurred 
directly  subsequent  to  that  event.  We  are  told  that 
the  god  Hurakan,  the  mighty  wind,  a  deity  in  whom 
we  can  discern  a  Kiche  equivalent  to  Tezcatlipoca, 
passed  over  the  universe,  still  wrapped  in  gloom.  He 
called  out  "Earth,"  and  the  solid  land  appeared.  Then 
the  chief  gods  took  counsel  among  themselves  as  to 
what  should  next  be  made.  These  were  Hurakan, 
Gucumatz  or  Quetzalcoatl,  and  Xpiyacoc  and  Xmu- 
cane,  the  mother  and  father  gods.  They  agreed  that 
animals  should  be  created.  This  was  accomplished, 
and  they  next  turned  their  attention  to  the  framing  of 
man.  They  made  a  number  of  mannikins  carved  out 
of  wood.  But  these  were  irreverent  and  angered  the 
gods,  who  resolved  to  bring  about  their  downfall. 
Then  Hurakan  (The  Heart  of  Heaven)  caused  the 
waters  to  be  swollen,  and  a  mighty  flood  came  upon 
the  mannikins.  Also  a  thick  resinous  rain  descended 
upon  them.  The  bird  Xecotcovach  tore  out  their  eyes, 
the  bird  Camulatz  cut  off  their  heads,  the  bird  Cotz- 
balam  devoured  their  flesh,  the  bird  Tecumbalam 
broke  their  bones  and  sinews  and  ground  them  into 

o  209 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

powder.  Then  all  sorts  of  beings,  great  and  small, 
abused  the  mannikins.  The  household  utensils  and 
domestic  animals  jeered  at  them,  and  made  game  of 
them  in  their  plight.  The  dogs  and  hens  said  :  "  Very 
badly  have  you  treated  us  and  you  have  bitten  us. 
Now  we  bite  you  in  turn."  The  millstones  said  : 
"  Very  much  were  we  tormented  by  you,  and  daily, 
daily,  night  and  day,  it  was  squeak,  screech,  screech, 
holi,  holi,  huqi,  huqi,1  for  your  sake.  Now  you  shall 
feel  our  strength,  and  we  shall  grind  your  flesh  and 
make  meal  of  your  bodies."  And  the  dogs  growled  at 
the  unhappy  images  because  they  had  not  been  fed, 
and  tore  them  with  their  teeth.  The  cups  and  platters 
said  :  "  Pain  and  misery  you  gave  us,  smoking  our 
tops  and  sides,  cooking  us  over  the  fire,  burning  and 
hurting  us  as  if  we  had  no  feeling.  Now  it  is  your 
turn,  and  you  shall  burn."  The  unfortunate  manni- 
kins ran  hither  and  thither  in  their  despair.  They 
mounted  upon  the  roofs  of  the  houses,  but  the  houses 
crumbled  beneath  their  feet  ;  they  tried  to  climb  to  the 
tops  of  the  trees,  but  the  trees  hurled  them  down  ;  they 
were  even  repulsed  by  the  caves,  which  closed  before 
them.  Thus  this  ill-starred  race  was  finally  destroyed 
and  overthrown,  and  the  only  vestiges  of  them  which 
remain  are  certain  of  their  progeny,  the  little  monkeys 
which  dwell  in  the  woods. 

Vukub'Cakix,  the  Great  Macaw 

Ere  the  earth  was  quite  recovered  from  the  wrathful 
flood  which  had  descended  upon  it  there  lived  a  being 
orgulous  and  full  of  pride,  called  Vukub-Cakix  (Seven- 
times-the-colour-of-fire — the  Kiche  name  for  the  great 
macaw  bird).  His  teeth  were  of  emerald,  and  other 

1  These  words  are  obviously   onomatopoetic,  and  are  evidently 
intended  to  imitate  the  sound  made  by  a  millstone. 
•10 


VUKUB-CAKIX  THE  GREAT  MACAW 

parts  of  him  shone  with  the  brilliance  of  gold  and 
silver.  In  short,  it  is  evident  that  he  was  a  sun-and- 
moon  god  of  prehistoric  times.  He  boasted  dread- 
fully, and  his  conduct  so  irritated  the  other  gods  that 
they  resolved  upon  his  destruction.  His  two  sons, 
Zipacna  and  Cabrakan  (Cockspur  or  Earth-heaper,  and 
Earthquake),  were  earthquake-gods  of  the  type  of  the 
Jotuns  of  Scandinavian  myth  or  the  Titans  of  Greek 
legend.  These  also  were  prideful  and  arrogant,  and  to 
cause  their  downfall  the  gods  despatched  the  heavenly 
twins  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque  to  earth,  with  instruc- 
tions to  chastise  the  trio. 

Vukub-Cakix  prided  himself  upon  his  possession  of 
the  wonderful  nanze-tree,  the  tapal,  bearing  a  fruit 
round,  yellow,  and  aromatic,  upon  which  he  break- 
fasted every  morning.  One  morning  he  mounted  to 
its  summit,  whence  he  could  best  espy  the  choicest 
fruits,  when  he  was  surprised  and  infuriated  to  observe 
that  two  strangers  had  arrived  there  before  him, 
and  had  almost  denuded  the  tree  of  its  produce.  On 
seeing  Vukub,  Hun-Apu  raised  a  blow-pipe  to  his 
mouth  and  blew  a  dart  at  the  giant.  It  struck  him  on 
the  mouth,  and  he  fell  from  the  top  of  the  tree  to 
the  ground.  Hun-Apu  leapt  down  upon  Vukub  and 
grappled  with  him,  but  the  giant  in  terrible  anger 
seized  the  god  by  the  arm  and  wrenched  it  from  the 
body.  He  then  returned  to  his  house,  where  he  was 
met  by  his  wife,  Chimalmat,  who  inquired  for  what 
reason  he  roared  with  pain.  In  reply  he  pointed  to  his 
mouth,  and  so  full  of  anger  was  he  against  Hun-Apu 
that  he  took  the  arm  he  had  wrenched  from  him  and 
hung  it  over  a  blazing  fire.  He  then  threw  himself 
down  to  bemoan  his  injuries,  consoling  himself,  how- 
ever, with  the  idea  that  he  had  avenged  himself  upon 
the  disturbers  of  his  peace. 

211 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Whilst  Vukub-Cakix  moaned  and  howled  with  the 
dreadful  pain  which  he  felt  in  his  jaw  and  teeth  (for 
the  dart  which  had  pierced  him  was  probably  poisoned) 
the  arm  of  Hun-Apu  hung  over  the  fire,  and  was 
turned  round  and  round  and  basted  by  Vukub' s  spouse, 
Chimalmat.  The  sun-god  rained  bitter  imprecations 
upon  the  interlopers  who  had  penetrated  to  his  para- 
dise and  had  caused  him  such  woe,  and  he  gave  vent 
to  dire  threats  of  what  would  happen  if  he  succeeded 
in  getting  them  into  his  power. 

But  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque  were  not  minded  that 
Vukub-Cakix  should  escape  so  easily,  and  the  recovery 
of  Hun-Apu' s  arm  must  be  made  at  all  hazards.  So 
they  went  to  consult  two  great  and  wise  magicians, 
Xpiyacoc  and  Xmucane,  in  whom  we  see  two  of 
the  original  Kiche  creative  deities,  who  advised  them 
to  proceed  with  them  in  disguise  to  the  dwelling  of 
Vukub,  if  they  wished  to  recover  the  lost  arm.  The 
old  magicians  resolved  to  disguise  themselves  as  doc- 
tors, and  dressed  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque  in  other 
garments  to  represent  their  sons. 

Shortly  they  arrived  at  the  mansion  of  Vukub,  and 
while  still  some  way  off  they  could  hear  his  groans 
and  cries.  Presenting  themselves  at  the  door,  they 
accosted  him.  They  told  him  that  they  had  heard 
some  one  crying  out  in  pain,  and  that  as  famous 
doctors  they  considered  it  their  duty  to  ask  who  was 
suffering. 

Vukub  appeared  quite  satisfied,  but  closely  ques- 
tioned the  old  wizards  concerning  the  two  young  men 
who  accompanied  them. 

"  They  are  our  sons,"  they  replied. 

"  Good,"  said  Vukub.  "  Do  you  think  you  will  be 
able  to  cure  me  ?  " 

"  We  have  no  doubt  whatever  upon  that  head," 
tit 


THE  EARTH-GIANTS 

answered  Xpiyacoc.     "You  have  sustained  very  bad 
injuries  to  your  mouth  and  eyes." 

"  The  demons  who  shot  me  with  an  arrow  from  their 
blow-pipe  are  the  cause  of  my  sufferings,"  said  Vukub. 
"  If  you  are  able  to  cure  me  I  shall  reward  you  richly." 

"  Your  Highness  has  many  bad  teeth,  which  must 
be  removed,"  said  the  wily  old  magician.  "  Also  the 
balls  of  your  eyes  appear  to  me  to  be  diseased." 

Vukub  appeared  highly  alarmed,  but  the  magicians 
speedily  reassured  him. 

"  It  is  necessary,"  said  Xpiyacoc,  "  that  we  remove 
your  teeth,  but  we  will  take  care  to  replace  them  with 
grains  of  maize,  which  you  will  find  much  more 
agreeable  in  every  way." 

The  unsuspicious  giant  agreed  to  the  operation,  and 
very  quickly  Xpiyacoc,  with  the  help  of  Xmucane, 
removed  his  teeth  of  emerald,  and  replaced  them  by 
grains  of  white  maize.  A  change  quickly  came  over 
the  Titan.  His  brilliancy  speedily  vanished,  and  when 
they  removed  the  balls  of  his  eyes  he  sank  into 
insensibility  and  died. 

All  this  time  the  wife  of  Vukub  was  turning  Him- 
Apu's  arm  over  the  fire,  but  Hun-Apu  snatched  the  limb 
from  above  the  brazier,  and  with  the  help  of  the  magi- 
cians replaced  it  upon  his  shoulder.  The  discomfiture  of 
Vukub  was  then  complete.  The  party  left  his  dwelling 
feeling  that  their  mission  had  been  accomplished. 

The  Earth'Giants 

But  in  reality  it  was  only  partially  accomplished, 
because  Vukub's  two  sons,  Zipacna  and  Cabrakan,  still 
remained  to  be  dealt  with.  Zipacna  was  daily  employed 
in  heaping  up  mountains,  while  Cabrakan,  his  brother, 
shook  them  in  earthquake.  The  vengeance  of  Hun- 
Apu  and  Xbalanque  was  first  directed  against  Zipacna, 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

and  they  conspired  with  a  band  of  young  men  to  bring 
about  his  death. 

The  young  men,  four  hundred  in  number,  pretended 
to  be  engaged  in  building  a  house.  They  cut  down  a 
large  tree,  which  they  made  believe  was  to  be  the  roof- 
tree  of  their  dwelling,  and  waited  in  a  part  of  the 
forest  through  which  they  knew  Zipacna  must  pass. 
After  a  while  they  could  hear  the  giant  crashing 
through  the  trees.  He  came  into  sight,  and  when  he 
saw  them  standing  round  the  giant  tree-trunk,  which 
they  could  not  lift,  he  seemed  very  much  amused. 

"  What  have  you  there,  O  little  ones  ? "  he  said 
laughing. 

"  Only  a  tree,  your  Highness,  which  we  have  felled 
for  the  roof-tree  of  a  new  house  we  are  building." 

"Cannot  you  carry  it?"  asked  the  giant  disdainfully. 

"  No,  your  Highness,"  they  made  answer;  "  it  is  much 
too  heavy  to  be  lifted  even  by  our  united  efforts." 

With  a  good-natured  laugh  the  Titan  stooped  and 
lifted  the  great  trunk  upon  his  shoulder.  Then, 
bidding  them  lead  the  way,  he  trudged  through  the 
forest,  evidently  not  disconcerted  in  the  least  by  his 
great  burden.  Now  the  young  men,  incited  by  Hun- 
Apu  and  Xbalanque,  had  dug  a  great  ditch,  which  they 
pretended  was  to  serve  for  the  foundation  of  their  new 
house.  Into  this  they  requested  Zipacna  to  descend, 
and,  scenting  no  mischief,  the  giant  readily  complied. 
On  his  reaching  the  bottom  his  treacherous  acquaint- 
ances cast  huge  trunks  of  trees  upon  him,  but  on 
hearing  them  coming  down  he  quickly  took  refuge  in 
a  small  side  tunnel  which  the  youths  had  constructed 
to  serve  as  a  cellar  beneath  their  house. 

Imagining  the  giant  to  be  killed,  they  began  at  once 
to  express  their  delight  by  singing  and  dancing,  and  to 
lend  colour  to  his  stratagem  Zipacna  despatched  several 
"4 


The  Twins  make  an  imitation  Crab 
Gilbert  James 


214 


THE  UNDOING  OF  ZIPACNA 
friendly  ants  to  the  surface  with  strands  of  hair,  which 
the  young  men  concluded  had  been  taken  from  his 
dead  body.  Assured  by  the  seeming  proof  of  his 
death,  the  youths  proceeded  to  build  their  house  upon 
the  tree-trunks  which  they  imagined  covered  Zipacna's 
body,  and,  producing  a  quantity  of  pulque,  they  began 
to  make  merry  over  the  end  of  their  enemy.  For  some 
hours  their  new  dwelling  rang  with  revelry. 

All  this  time  Zipacna,  quietly  hidden  below,  was 
listening  to  the  hubbub  and  waiting  his  chance  to 
revenge  himself  upon  those  who  had  entrapped  him. 

Suddenly  arising  in  his  giant  might,  he  cast  the 
house  and  all  its  inmates  high  in  the  air.  The  dwelling 
was  utterly  demolished,  and  the  band  of  youths  were 
hurled  with  such  force  into  the  sky  that  they  remained 
there,  and  in  the  stars  we  call  the  Pleiades  we  can  still 
discern  them  wearily  waiting  an  opportunity  to  return 
to  earth. 

The  Undoing  of  Zipacna 

But  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque,  grieved  that  their 
comrades  had  so  perished,  resolved  that  Zipacna  must 
not  be  permitted  to  escape  so  easily.  He,  carrying 
the  mountains  by  night,  sought  his  food  by  day  on  the 
shore  of  the  river,  where  he  wandered  catching  fish  and 
crabs.  The  brothers  made  a  large  artificial  crab,  which 
they  placed  in  a  cavern  at  the  bottom  of  a  ravine. 
They  then  cunningly  undermined  a  huge  mountain, 
and  awaited  events.  Very  soon  they  saw  Zipacua 
wandering  along  the  side  of  the  river,  and  asked  him 
where  he  was  going. 

"  Oh,  I  am  only  seeking  my  daily  food,"  replied  the 
giant. 

"  And  what  may  that  consist  of  ? "  asked  the 
brothers. 

"I 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

"  Only  of  fish  and  crabs,"  replied  Zipacna. 

"  Oh,  there  is  a  crab  down  yonder,"  said  the  crafty 
brothers,  pointing  to  the  bottom  of  the  ravine.  "  We 
espied  it  as  we  came  along.  Truly,  it  is  a  great  crab, 
and  will  furnish  you  with  a  capital  breakfast." 

"  Splendid  !  "  cried  Zipacna,  with  glistening  eyes. 
"  I  must  have  it  at  once,"  and  with  one  bound  he  leapt 
down  to  where  the  cunningly  contrived  crab  lay  in  the 
cavern. 

No  sooner  had  he  reached  it  than  Hun-Apu  and 
Xbalanque  cast  the  mountain  upon  him  ;  but  so  desperate 
were  his  efforts  to  get  free  that  the  brothers  feared  he 
might  rid  himself  of  the  immense  weight  of  earth  under 
which  he  was  buried,  and  to  make  sure  of  his  fate  they 
turned  him  into  stone.  Thus  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Meahuan,  near  Vera  Paz,  perished  the  proud  Mountain- 
Maker. 

The  Discomfiture  of  Cabrakan 

Now  only  the  third  of  this  family  of  boasters  re- 
mained, and  he  was  the  most  proud  of  any. 

"  I  am  the  Overturn er  of  Mountains  !  "  said  he. 

But  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque  had  made  up  their  minds 
that  not  one  of  the  race  of  Vukub  should  be  left  alive. 

At  the  moment  when  they  were  plotting  the  over- 
throw of  Cabrakan  he  was  occupied  in  moving  moun- 
tains. He  seized  the  mountains  by  their  bases  and, 
exerting  his  mighty  strength,  cast  them  into  the  air  ; 
and  of  the  smaller  mountains  he  took  no  account  at  all. 
While  he  was  so  employed  he  met  the  brothers,  who 
greeted  him  cordially. 

"  Good  day,  Cabrakan,"  said  they.  "  What  may  you 
be  doing  ? " 

"  Bah  1  nothing  at  all,"  replied  the  giant.  "  Cannot 
you  see  that  I  am  throwing  the  mountains  about,  which 
zi6 


THE  DISCOMFITURE  OF  CABRAKAN 

is  my  usual  occupation  ?     And  who   may  you  be  that 
ask  such  stupid  questions  ?    What  are  your  names  ? " 

"  We  have  no  names,"  replied  they.  "  We  are  only 
hunters,  and  here  we  have  our  blow-pipes,  with  which 
we  shoot  the  birds  that  live  in  these  mountains.  So  you 
see  that  we  do  not  require  names,  as  we  meet  no  one." 

Cabrakan  looked  at  the  brothers  disdainfully,  and  was 
about  to  depart  when  they  said  to  him  :  "  Stay  ;  we 
should  like  to  behold  these  mountain-throwing  feats  of 
yours." 

This  aroused  the  pride  of  Cabrakan. 

"  Well,  since  you  wish  it,"  said  he,  "  I  will  show 
you  how  1  can  move  a  really  great  mountain.  Now, 
choose  the  one  you  would  like  to  see  me  destroy, 
and  before  you  are  aware  of  it  I  shall  have  reduced  it 
to  dust." 

Hun-Apu  looked  around  him,  and  espying  a  great 
peak  pointed  toward  it.  "  Do  you  think  you  could 
overthrow  that  mountain  ?"  he  asked. 

"Without  the  least  difficulty,"  replied  Cabrakan,  with 
a  great  laugh.  "  Let  us  go  toward  it. " 

"  But  first  you  must  eat,"  said  Hun-Apu.  "  You 
have  had  no  food  since  morning,  and  so  great  a  feat  can 
hardly  be  accomplished  fasting." 

The  giant  smacked  his  lips.  "You  are  right,"  he 
said,  with  a  hungry  look.  Cabrakan  was  one  of  those 
people  who  are  always  hungry.  "  But  what  have  you 
to  give  me  ?" 

"  We  have  nothing  with  us,"  said  Hun-Apu. 

"  Umph  !  "  growled  Cabrakan,  "  you  are  a  pretty 
fellow.  You  ask  me  what  I  will  have  to  eat,  and  then 
tell  me  you  have  nothing,"  and  in  his  anger  he  seized 
one  of  the  smaller  mountains  and  threw  it  into  the  sea, 
so  that  the  waves  splashed  up  to  the  sky. 

"Come,"  said   Hun-Apu,  "don't  get  angry.     We 

117 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
have  our  blow-pipes  with  us,  and  will  shoot  a  bird  for 
your  dinner." 

On  hearing  this  Cabrakan  grew  somewhat  quieter. 

"  Why  did  you  not  say  so  at  first  ? "  he  growled. 
"  But  be  quick,  because  I  am  hungry." 

Just  at  that  moment  a  large  bird  passed  overhead, 
and  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque  raised  their  blow-pipes 
to  their  mouths.  The  darts  sped  swiftly  upward,  and 
both  of  them  struck  the  bird,  which  came  tumbling 
down  through  the  air,  falling  at  the  feet  of  Cabrakan. 

"  Wonderful,  wonderful  !  "  cried  the  giant.  "  You 
are  clever  fellows  indeed,"  and,  seizing  the  dead  bird, 
he  was  going  to  eat  it  raw  when  Hun-Apu  stopped 
him* 

"  Wait  a  moment,"  said  he.  "  It  will  be  much  nicer 
when  cooked,"  and,  rubbing  two  sticks  together,  he 
ordered  Xbalanque  to  gather  some  dry  wood,  so  that 
a  fire  was  soon  blazing. 

The  bird  was  then  suspended  over  the  fire,  and  in  a 
short  time  a  savoury  odour  mounted  to  the  nostrils  of 
the  giant,  who  stood  watching  the  cooking  with  hungry 
eyes  and  watering  lips. 

Before  placing  the  bird  over  the  fire  to  cook,  how- 
ever, Hun-Apu  had  smeared  its  feathers  with  a  thick 
coating  of  mud.  The  Indians  in  some  parts  of  Central 
America  still  do  this,  so  that  when  the  mud  dries  with 
the  heat  of  the  fire  the  feathers  will  come  off  with  it, 
leaving  the  flesh  of  the  bird  quite  ready  to  eat.  But 
Hun-Apu  had  done  this  with  a  purpose.  The  mud 
that  he  spread  on  the  feathers  was  that  of  a  poisoned 
earth,  called  tizate,  the  elements  of  which  sank  deeply 
into  the  flesh  of  the  bird. 

When  the  savoury  mess  was  cooked,  he  handed  it 
to  Cabrakan,  who  speedily  devoured  it. 

"  Now,"  said  Hun-Apu,  "  let  us  go  toward  that 
•tl 


THE  DISCOMFITURE  OF  CABRAKAN 
great  mountain   and   see   if  you   can   lift   it   as   you 
boast." 

But  already  Cabrakan  began  to  feel  strange  pangs. 

"  What  is  this  ? "  said  he,  passing  his  hand  across 
his  brow.  "  I  do  not  seem  to  see  the  mountain  you 
mean." 

"  Nonsense,"  said  Hun-Apu.  "  Yonder  it  is,  see, 
to  the  east  there." 

"  My  eyes  seem  dim  this  morning,"  replied  the  giant. 

"No,  it  is  not  that,"  said  Hun-Apu.  "You  have 
boasted  that  you  could  lift  this  mountain,  and  now  you 
are  afraid  to  try." 

"  I  tell  you,"  said  Cabrakan,  "  that  I  have  difficulty 
in  seeing.  Will  you  lead  me  to  the  mountain  ?  " 

"  Certainly,"  said  Hun-Apu,  giving  him  his  hand, 
and  with  several  strides  they  were  at  the  foot  of  the 
eminence, 

"  Now,"  said  Hun-Apu,  "  see  what  you  can  do, 
boaster." 

Cabrakan  gazed  stupidly  at  the  great  mass  in  front 
of  him.  His  knees  shook  together  so  that  the  sound 
was  like  the  beating  of  a  war-drum,  and  the  sweat 
poured  from  his  forehead  and  ran  in  a  little  stream 
down  the  side  of  the  mountain. 

"  Come,"  cried  Hun-Apu  derisively,  "  are  you 
going  to  lift  the  mountain  or  not  ?  " 

"  He  cannot,"  sneered  Xbalanque.  "  I  knew  he 
could  not." 

Cabrakan  shook  himself  into  a  final  effort  to  regain 
his  senses,  but  all  to  no  purpose.  The  poison  rushed 
through  his  blood,  and  with  a  groan  he  fell  dead 
before  the  brothers. 

Thus  perished  the  last  of  the  earth-giants  of  Guate- 
mala, whom  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque  had  been  sent 

to  destroy. 

119 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  Second  Book 

The  second  book  of  the  Popol  Vuh  outlines  the 
history  of  the  hero-gods  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque. 
We  are  told  that  Xpiyacoc  and  Xmucane,  the  father 
and  mother  gods,  had  two  sons,  Hunhun-Apu  and 
Vukub-Hunapu,  the  first  of  whom  had  by  his  wife 
Xbakiyalo  two  sons,  Hunbatz  and  Hunchouen.  The 
weakness  of  the  whole  family  was  the  native  game  of 
ball,  possibly  the  Mexican- Mayan  game  of  tlachtli^  a 
sort  of  hockey.  To  this  pastime  the  natives  of  Central 
America  were  greatly  addicted,  and  numerous  remains 
of  tlachtli  courts  are  to  be  found  in  the  ruined  cities  of 
Yucatan  and  Guatemala.  The  object  of  the  game  was 
to  "  putt "  the  ball  through  a  small  hole  in  a  circular 
stone  or  goal,  and  the  player  who  succeeded  in  doing 
this  might  demand  from  the  audience  all  their  clothes 
and  jewels.  The  game,  as  we  have  said,  was  exceed- 
ingly popular  in  ancient  Central  America,  and  there  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  inter-city  matches  took 
place  between  the  various  city-states,  and  were  accom- 
panied by  a  partisanship  and  rivalry  as  keen  as  that 
which  finds  expression  among  the  crowd  at  our  principal 
football  matches  to-day. 

A  Challenge  from  Hades 

On  one  occasion  Hunhun-Apu  and  Vukub-Hunapu 
played  a  game  of  ball  which  in  its  progress  took  them 
into  the  vicinity  of  the  realm  of  Xibalba  (the  Kiche 
Hades).  The  rulers  of  that  drear  abode,  imagining 
that  they  had  a  chance  of  capturing  the  brothers, 
extended  a  challenge  to  them  to  play  them  at  ball, 
and  this  challenge  Hun-Came  and  Vukub-Came,  the 
sovereigns  of  the  Kiche  Hell,  despatched  by  four 
messengers  in  the  shape  of  owls.  The  brothers 
210 


The  Princess  and  the  Gourds 

Gilbert  James 


THE  FOOLING  OF  THE  BRETHREN 

accepted  the  challenge,  and,  bidding  farewell  to  their 
mother  Xmucane  and  their  respective  sons  and 
nephews,  followed  the  feathered  messengers  down  the 
long  hill  which  led  to  the  Underworld. 

The  Fooling  of  the  Brethren 

The  American  Indian  is  grave  and  taciturn.  If 
there  is  one  thing  he  fears  and  dislikes  more  than 
another  it  is  ridicule.  To  his  austere  and  haughty 
spirit  it  appears  as  something  derogatory  to  his 
dignity,  a  slur  upon  his  manhood.  The  hero-brothers 
had  not  been  long  in  Xibalba  when  they  discovered 
that  it  was  the  intention  of  the  Lords  of  Hades  to 
fool  them  and  subject  them  to  every  species  of  in- 
dignity. After  crossing  a  river  of  blood,  they  came  to 
the  palace  of  the  Lords  of  Xibalba,  where  they  espied 
two  seated  figures  in  front  of  them.  Thinking  that 
they  recognised  in  them  Hun-Came  and  Vukub-Came, 
they  saluted  them  in  a  becoming  manner,  only  to  dis- 
cover to  their  mortification  that  they  were  addressing 
figures  of  wood.  This  incident  excited  the  ribald  jeers 
of  the  Xibalbans,  who  scoffed  at  the  brothers.  Next 
they  were  invited  to  sit  on  the  seat  of  honour,  which 
they  found  to  their  dismay  to  be  a  red-hot  stone,  a 
circumstance  which  caused  unbounded  amusement  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Underworld.  Then  they  were 
imprisoned  in  the  House  of  Gloom,  where  they  were 
sacrificed  and  buried.  The  head  of  Hunhun-Apu  was, 
however,  suspended  from  a  tree,  upon  the  branches  of 
which  grew  a  crop  of  gourds  so  like  the  dreadful 
trophy  as  to  be  indistinguishable  from  it.  The  fiat 
went  forth  that  no  one  in  Xibalba  must  eat  of  the  fruit 
of  that  tree.  But  the  Lords  of  Xibalba  had  reckoned 
without  feminine  curiosity  and  its  unconquerable  love 
of  the  forbidden. 

221 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  Princess  Xquiq 

One  day — if  day  ever  penetrated  to  that  gloomy 
and  unwholesome  place — a  princess  of  Xibalba  called 
Xquiq  (Blood),  daughter  of  Cuchumaquiq,  a  notability 
of  Xibalba,  passed  under  the  tree,  and,  observing  the 
desirable  fruit  with  which  it  was  covered,  stretched  out 
her  hand  to  pluck  one  of  the  gourds.  Into  the  out- 
stretched palm  the  head  of  Hunhun-Apu  spat,  and 
told  Xquiq  that  she  would  become  a  mother.  Before 
she  returned  home,  however,  the  hero-god  assured 
her  that  no  harm  would  come  to  her,  and  that 
she  must  not  be  afraid.  In  a  few  months'  time  the 
princess's  father  heard  of  her  adventure,  and  she 
was  doomed  to  be  slain,  the  royal  messengers  of 
Xibalba,  the  owls,  receiving  commands  to  despatch  her 
and  to  bring  back  her  heart  in  a  vase.  But  on  the  way 
she  overcame  the  scruples  of  the  owls  by  splendid 
promises,  and  they  substituted  for  her  heart  the 
coagulated  sap  of  the  bloodwort  plant. 

The  Birth  of  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque 

Xmucane,  left  at  home,  looked  after  the  welfare  of 
the  young  Hunbatz  and  Hunchouen,  and  thither,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  head  of  Hunhun-Apu,  went 
Xquiq  for  protection.  At  first  Xmucane  would  not 
credit  her  story,  but  upon  Xquiq  appealing  to  the 
gods  a  miracle  was  performed  on  her  behalf,  and  she 
was  permitted  to  gather  a  basket  of  maize  where  no 
maize  grew  to  prove  the  authenticity  of  her  claim.  As 
a  princess  of  the  Underworld,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
she  should  be  connected  with  such  a  phenomenon,  as 
it  is  from  deities  of  that  region  that  we  usually  expect 
the  phenomena  of  growth  to  proceed.  Shortly  after- 
wards, when  she  had  won  the  good  graces  of  the  aged 

*2Z 


The  Princess  who  made  Friends  of  the  Owls 
Gilbert  James 


THE  MAGIC  TOOLS 

Xmucane,  her  twin  sons  were  born,  the  Hun-Apu  and 
Xbalanque  whom  we  have  already  met  as  the  central 
figures  of  the  first  book. 

The  Divine  Children 

But  the  divine  children  were  both  noisy  and  mis- 
chievous. They  tormented  their  venerable  grand- 
mother with  their  shrill  uproar  and  tricky  behaviour. 
At  last  Xmucane,  unable  to  put  up  with  their  habits, 
turned  them  out  of  doors.  They  took  to  an  outdoor 
life  with  surprising  ease,  and  soon  became  expert  hunters 
and  skilful  in  the  use  of  the  serbatana  (blow-pipe),  with 
which  they  shot  birds  and  small  animals.  They  were 
badly  treated  by  their  half-brothers  Hunbatz,  and 
Hunchouen,  who, -jealous  of  their  fame  as  hunters, 
annoyed  them  in  every  possible  manner.  But  the 
divine  children  retaliated  by  turning  their  tormentors 
into  hideous  apes.  The  sudden  change  in  the  appear- 
ance of  her  grandsons  caused  Xmucane  the  most 
profound  grief  and  dismay,  and  she  begged  that  they 
who  had  brightened  her  home  with  their  singing 
and  flute-playing  might  not  be  condemned  to  such  a 
dreadful  fate.  She  was  informed  by  the  divine 
brothers  that  if  she  could  behold  their  antics  unmoved 
by  mirth  her  wish  would  be  granted.  But  the  capers 
they  cut  and  their  grimaces  caused  her  such  merriment 
that  on  three  separate  occasions  she  was  unable  to 
restrain  her  laughter,  and  the  men-monkeys  took  their 
leave. 

The  Magic  Tools 

The  childhood  of  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque  was  full 
of  such  episodes  as  might  be  expected  from  these  beings. 
We  find,  for  example,  that  on  attempting  to  clear  a 
milpa  (maize  plantation)  they  employed  magic  tools 


MYTHS  OP  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

which  could  be  trusted  to  undertake  a  good  day's 
work  whilst  they  were  absent  at  the  chase.  Returning 
at  night,  they  smeared  soil  over  their  hands  and  faces, 
for  the  purpose  of  deluding  Xmucane  into  the  belief 
that  they  had  been  toiling  all  day  in  the  fields.  But 
the  wild  beasts  met  in  conclave  during  the  night,  and 
replaced  all  the  roots  and  shrubs  which  the  magic  tools 
had  cleared  away.  The  twins  recognised  the  work  of 
the  various  animals,  and  placed  a  large  net  on  the 
ground,  so  that  if  the  creatures  came  to  the  spot  on 
the  following  night  they  might  be  caught  in  its  folds. 
They  did  come,  but  all  made  good  their  escape  save 
the  rat.  The  rabbit  and  deer  lost  their  tails,  how- 
ever, and  that  is  why  these  animals  possess  no  caudal 
appendages  !  The  rat,  in  gratitude  for  their  sparing  its 
life,  told  the  brothers  the  history  of  their  father  and 
uncle,  of  their  heroic  efforts  against  the  powers  of 
Xibalba,  and  of  the  existence  of  a  set  of  clubs  and 
balls  with  which  they  might  play  tlachtli  on  the  ball- 
ground  at  Ninxor-Carchah,  where  Hunhun-Apu  and 
Vukub-Hunapu  had  played  before  them. 

The  Second  Challenge 

But  the  watchful  Hun-Came  and  Vukub-Came  soon 
heard  that  the  sons  and  nephews  of  their  first  victims 
had  adopted  the  game  which  had  led  these  last  into  the 
clutches  of  the  cunning  Xibalbans,  and  they  resolved 
to  send  a  similar  challenge  to  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque, 
thinking  that  the  twins  were  unaware  of  the  fate  of 
Hunhun-Apu  and  Vukub-Hunapu.  They  therefore 
despatched  messengers  to  the  home  of  Xmucane  with  a 
challenge  to  play  them  at  the  ball-game,  and  Xmucane, 
alarmed  by  the  nature  of  the  message,  sent  a  louse  to 
warn  her  grandsons.  The  louse,-unable  to  proceed  as 
quickly  as  he  wished,  permitted  himself  to  be  swallowed 
2*4 


THE  TRICKSTERS    TRICKED 

by  a  toad,  the  toad  by  a  serpent,  and  the  serpent  by 
the  bird  Voc,  the  messenger  of  Hurakan.  At  the  end 
of  the  journey  the  other  animals  duly  liberated  each 
other,  but  the  toad  could  not  rid  himself  of  the  louse, 
who  had  in  reality  hidden  himself  in  the  toad's  gums, 
and  had  not  been  swallowed  at  all.  At  last  the  mes- 
sage was  delivered,  and  the  twins  returned  to  the  abode 
of  Xmucane,  to  bid  farewell  to  their  grandmother  and 
mother.  Before  leaving  they  each  planted  a  cane  in 
the  midst  of  the  hut,  saying  that  it  would  wither  if 
any  fatal  accident  befell  them. 

The  Tricksters  Tricked 

They  then  proceeded  to  Xibalba,  on  the  road 
trodden  by  Hunhun-Apu  and  Vukub-Hunapu,  and 
passed  the  river  of  blood  as  the  others  had  done.  But 
they  adopted  the  precaution  of  despatching  ahead  an 
animal  called  Xan  as  a  sort  of  spy  or  scout.  They  com- 
manded this  animal  to  prick  all  the  Xibalbans  with  a 
hair  from  Hun-Apu's  leg,  in  order  that  they  might 
discover  which  of  them  were  made  of  wood,  and 
incidentally  learn  the  names  of  the  others  as  they 
addressed  one  another  when  pricked  by  the  hair.  They 
were  thus  enabled  to  ignore  the  wooden  images  on 
their  arrival  at  Xibalba,  and  they  carefully  avoided  the 
red-hot  stone.  Nor  did  the  ordeal  of  the  House  of 
Gloom  affright  them,  and  they  passed  through  it 
scatheless.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Underworld  were 
both  amazed  and  furious  with  disappointment.  To 
add  to  their  annoyance,  they  were  badly  beaten  in 
the  game  of  ball  which  followed.  The  Lords  of  Hell 
then  requested  the  twins  to  bring  them  four  bouquets 
of  flowers  from  the  royal  garden  of  Xibalba,  at  the 
same  time  commanding  the  gardeners  to  keep  good 
watch  over  the  flowers  so  that  none  of  them  might  be 

T  225 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

removed.  But  the  brothers  called  to  their  aid  a 
swarm  of  ants,  who  succeeded  in  returning  with  the 
flowers.  The  anger  of  the  Xibalbans  increased  to 
a  white  fury,  and  they  incarcerated  Hun-Apu  and 
Xbalanque  in  the  House  of  Lances,  a  dread  abode 
where  demons  armed  with  sharp  spears  thrust  at  them 
fiercely.  But  they  bribed  the  lancers  and  escaped. 
The  Xibalbans  slit  the  beaks  of  the  owls  who  guarded 
the  royal  gardens,  and  howled  in  fury. 

The  Houses  of  the  Ordeals 

They  were  next  thrust  into  the  House  or  Cold. 
Here  they  escaped  a  dreadful  death  from  freezing  by 
warming  themselves  with  burning  pine-cones.  Into 
the  House  of  Tigers  and  the  House  of  Fire  they  were 
thrown  for  a  night  each,  but  escaped  from  both.  But 
they  were  not  so  lucky  in  the  House  of  Bats.  As 
they  threaded  this  place  of  terror,  Camazotz,  Ruler  of 
the  Bats,  descended  upon  them  with  a  whirring  of 
leathern  wings,  and  with  one  sweep  of  his  sword-like 
claws  cut  oflFHun-Apu's  head.  (See  Mictlan,  pp.  95, 96.) 
But  a  tortoise  which  chanced  to  pass  the  severed  neck 
of  the  hero's  prostrate  body  and  came  into  contact  with 
it  was  immediately  turned  into  a  head,  and  Hun-Apu 
arose  from  his  terrible  experience  not  a  whit  the  worse. 

These  various  houses  in  which  the  brothers  were 
forced  to  pass  a  certain  time  forcibly  recall  to  our 
minds  the  several  circles  of  Dante's  Hell.  Xibalba 
was  to  the  Kichc  not  a  place  of  punishment,  but  a  dark 
place  of  horror  and  myriad  dangers.  No  wonder  the 
Maya  had  what  Landa  calls  "an  immoderate  fear  of 
death  "  if  they  believed  that  after  it  they  would  be 
transported  to  such  a  dread  abode ! 

With  the  object  of  proving  their  immortal  nature 
to  their  adversaries,  Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque,  first 
a  26 


In  the  House  of  Bats 

William  Sewell 


226 


THE  HOUSES  OF  THE  ORDEALS 

arranging  for  their  resurrection  with  two  sorcerers, 
Xulu  and  Pacaw,  stretched  themselves  upon  a  bier  and 
died.  Their  bones  were  ground  to  powder  and  thrown 
into  the  river.  They  then  went  through  a  kind 
of  evolutionary  process,  appearing  on  the  fifth  day 
after  their  deaths  as  men-fishes  and  on  the  sixth  as  old 
men,  ragged  and  tatterdemalion  in  appearance,  killing 
and  restoring  each  other  to  life.  At  the  request  of  the 
princes  of  Xibalba,  they  burned  the  royal  palace  and 
restored  it  to  its  pristine  splendour,  killed  and  resusci- 
tated the  king's  dog,  and  cut  a  man  in  pieces,  bring, 
ing  him  to  life  again.  The  Lords  of  Hell  were  curious 
about  the  sensation  of  death,  and  asked  to  be  killed 
and  resuscitated.  The  first  portion  of  their  request  the 
hero-brothers  speedily  granted,  but  did  not  deem  it 
necessary  to  pay  any  regard  to  the  second. 

Throwing  off  all  disguise,  the  brothers  assembled 
the  now  thoroughly  cowed  princes  of  Xibalba,  and 
announced  their  intention  of  punishing  them  for  their 
animosity  against  themselves,  their  father  and  uncle. 
They  were  forbidden  to  partake  in  the  noble  and  classic 
game  of  ball — a  great  indignity  in  the  eyes  of  Maya  of 
the  higher  caste — they  were  condemned  to  menial  tasks, 
and  they  were  to  have  sway  over  the  beasts  of  the 
forest  alone.  After  this  their  power  rapidly  waned. 
These  princes  of  the  Underworld  are  described  as  being 
owl-like,  with  faces  painted  black  and  white,  as  sym- 
bolical of  their  duplicity  and  faithless  disposition. 

As  some  reward  for  the  dreadful  indignities  they  had 
undergone,  the  souls  of  Hunhun-Apu  and  Vukub-Hun- 
apu,  the  first  adventurers  into  the  darksome  region  of 
Xibalba,  were  translated  to  the  skies,  and  became  the 
sun  and  moon,  and  with  this  apotheosis  the  second  book 
ends. 

W«  can  have  no  difficulty,  in  the  light  of  comparative 

«*T 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

mythology,  in  seeing  in  the  matter  of  this  book  a 
version  of  "  the  harrying  of  hell "  common  to  many 
mythologies.  In  many  primitive  faiths  a  hero  or  heroes 
dares  the  countless  dangers  of  Hades  in  order  to  prove 
to  the  savage  mind  that  the  terrors  of  death  can  be 
overcome.  In  Algonquian  mythology  Blue-Jay  makes 
game  of  the  Dead  Folk  whom  his  sister  loi  has  married, 
and  Balder  passes  through  the  Scandinavian  Helheim. 
The  god  must  first  descend  into  the  abyss  and  must 
emerge  triumphant  if  humble  folk  are  to  possess 
assurance  of  immortality. 

The  Reality  of  Myth 

It  is  from  such  matter  as  that  found  in  the  second 
book  of  the  Popol  Vuh  that  we  are  enabled  to  discern 
how  real  myth  can  be  on  occasion.  It  is  obvious,  as  has 
been  pointed  out,  that  the  dread  of  death  in  the  savage 
mind  may  give  rise  to  such  a  conception  of  its  van- 
quishment  as  appears  in  the  Popol  Vuh.  But  there  is 
reason  to  suspect  that  other  elements  have  also  entered 
into  the  composition  of  the  myth.  It  is  well  known 
that  an  invading  race,  driving  before  them  the  remnants 
of  a  conquered  people,  are  prone  to  regard  these  in  the 
course  of  a  few  generations  as  almost  supernatural  and 
as  denizens  of  a  sphere  more  or  less  infernal.  Their 
reasons  for  this  are  not  difficult  of  comprehension.  To 
begin  with,  a  difference  in  ceremonial  ritual  gives  rise 
to  the  belief  that  the  inimical  race  practises  magic. 
The  enemy  is  seldom  seen,  and,  if  perceived,  quickly 
takes  cover  or  "vanishes."  The  majority  of  aboriginal 
races  were  often  earth-  or  cave-dwellers,  like  the  Picts 
of  Scotland,  and  such  the  originals  of  the  Xibalbans 
probably  were. 

The  invading  Maya-Kiche,  encountering  such  a  folk 
in  the  cavernous  recesses  of  the  hill-slopes  of  Guatemala, 
128 


THE  THIRD  BOOK 

would  naturally  refer  them  to  the  Underworld.  The 
clifF-dwellings  of  Mexico  and  Colorado  exhibit  manifest 
signs  of  the  existence  of  such  a  cave-dwelling  race.  In 
the  latter  state  is  the  Cliff  Palace  Canon,  a  huge  natural 
recess,  within  which  a  small  city  was  actually  built, 
which  still  remains  in  excellent  preservation.  In  some 
such  semi-subterranean  recess,  then,  may  the  city  of 
"  Xibalba  "  have  stood. 

The  Xibalbans 

We  can  see,  too,  that  the  Xibalbans  were  not  merely  a 
plutonic  race.  Xibalba  is  not  a  Hell,  a  place  of  punish- 
ment for  sin,  but  a  place  of  the  dead,  and  its  inhabitants 
were  scarcely  "  devils,"  nor  evil  gods.  The  transcriber 
of  the  Popol  Vuh  says  of  them  :  "  In  the  old  times 
they  did  not  have  much  power.  They  were  but 
annoyers  and  opposers  of  men,  and,  in  truth,  they  were 
not  regarded  as  gods."  The  word  Xibalba  is  derived 
from  a  root  meaning  "  to  fear,"  from  which  comes  the 
name  for  a  ghost  or  phantom.  Xibalba  was  thus  the 
«  Place  of  Phantoms." 

The  Third  Book 

The  opening  of  the  third  book  finds  the  gods  once 
more  deliberating  as  to  the  creation  of  man.  Four 
men  are  evolved  as  the  result  of  these  deliberations. 
These  beings  were  moulded  from  a  paste  of  yellow  and 
white  maize,  and  were  named  Balam-Quitze  (Tiger  with 
the  Sweet  Smile),  Balam-Agab  (Tiger  of  the  Night), 
Mahacutah  (The  Distinguished  Name),  and  Iqi-Balam 
(Tiger  of  the  Moon). 

But  the  god  Hurakan  who  had  formed  them  was  not 
overpleased  with  his  handiwork,  for  these  beings  were 
too  much  like  the  gods  themselves.  The  gods  once  more 
took  counsel,  and  agreed  that  man  must  be  less  perfect 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
and  possess  less  knowledge  than  this  new  race.  He 
must  not  become  as  a  god.  So  Hurakan  breathed  a 
cloud  over  their  eyes  in  order  that  they  might  only  see 
a  portion  of  the  earth,  whereas  before  they  had  been 
able  to  see  the  whole  round  sphere  of  the  world.  After 
this  the  four  men  were  plunged  into  a  deep  sleep,  and 
four  women  were  created,  who  were  given  them  as 
wives.  These  were  Caha-Paluma  (Falling  Water), 
Choima  (Beautiful  Water),  Tzununiha  (House  of  the 
Water),  and  Cakixa  (Water  of  Parrots,  or  Brilliant 
Water),  who  were  espoused  to  the  men  in  the  re- 
spective order  given  above. 

These  eight  persons  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Kiche 
only,  after  which  were  created  the  forerunners  of  the 
other  peoples.  At  this  time  there  was  no  sun,  and  com- 
parative darkness  lay  over  the  face  of  the  earth.  Men 
knew  not  the  art  of  worship,  but  blindly  lifted  their 
eyes  to  heaven  and  prayed  the  Creator  to  send  them  quiet 
lives  and  the  light  of  day.  But  no  sun  came,  and  dis- 
peace  entered  their  hearts.  So  they  journeyed  to  «i 
place  called  Tulan-Zuiva  (The  Seven  Caves) — practi- 
cally the  same  as  Chicomoztoc  in  the  Aztec  myth — 
and  there  gods  were  vouchsafed  to  them.  The 
names  of  these  were  Tohil,  whom  Balam-Quitze  re- 
ceived ;  Avilix,  whom  Balam-Agab  received;  and 
Hacavitz,  granted  to  Mahacutah.  Iqi-Balam  received 
a  god,  but  as  he  had  no  family  his  worship  and 
knowledge  died  out. 

The  Granting  of  Fire 

Grievously  did  the  Kiche  feel  the  want  of  fire  in  the 
sunless  world  they  inhabited,  but  this  the  god  Tohil 
(The  Rumbler,  the  Fire-god)  quickly  provided  them 
with.  However,  a  mighty  rain  descended  and  extin- 
guished all  the  fires  in  the  land.  These,  however, 
230 


How  the  Sun  appeared  like  the  Moon 
Gilbert  James 


230 


THE  LAST  DAYS  OF  THE  FIRST  MEN 

were  always  supplied  again  by  Tohil,  who  had  only  to 
strike  his  feet  together  to  produce  fire.  In  this  figure 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  seeing  a  fully  developed 
thunder-god. 

The  Kiche  Babel 

Tulan-Zuiva  was  a  place  of  great  misfortune  to  the 
Kiche,  for  here  the  race  suffered  alienation  in  its 
different  branches  by  reason  of  a  confounding  of  their 
speech,  which  recalls  the  story  of  Babel.  Owing  to 
this  the  first  four  men  were  no  longer  able  to  compre- 
hend each  other,  and  determined  to  leave  the  place  of 
their  mischance  and  to  seek  the  leadership  of  the  god 
Tohil  into  another  and  more  fortunate  sphere.  In  this 
journey  they  met  with  innumerable  hardships.  They  had 
to  cross  many  lofty  mountains,  and  on  one  occasion  had 
to  make  a  long  detour  across  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  the 
waters  of  which  were  miraculously  divided  to  permit 
of  their  passage.  At  last  they  arrived  at  a  mountain 
which  they  called  Hacavitz,  after  one  of  their  deities, 
and  here  they  remained,  for  it  had  been  foretold  that 
here  they  should  see  the  sun.  At  last  the  luminary 
appeared.  Men  and  beasts  went  wild  with  delight, 
although  his  beams  were  by  no  means  strong,  and  he 
appeared  more  like  a  reflection  in  a  mirror  than  the 
strong  sun  of  later  days  whose  fiery  beams  speedily 
sucked  up  the  blood  of  victims  on  the  altar.  As  he 
showed  his  face  the  three  tribal  gods  of  the  Kiche 
were  turned  into  stone,  as  were  the  gods  or  totems 
connected  with  the  wild  animals.  Then  arose  the  first 
Kiche  town,  or  permanent  dwelling-place. 

The  Last  Days  of  the  First  Men 

Time  passed,  and  the  first  men  of  the  Kiche  race 
grew  old.  Visions  came  to  them,  in  which  they  were 

231 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

exhorted  by  the  gods  to  render  human  sacrifices,  and  in 
order  to  obey  the  divine  injunctions  they  raided  the 
neighbouring  lands,  the  folk  of  which  made  a  spirited 
resistance.  But  in  a  great  battle  the  Kiche  were 
miraculously  assisted  by  a  horde  of  wasps  and  hornets, 
which  flew  in  the  faces  of  their  foes,  stinging  and 
blinding  them,  so  that  they  could  not  wield  weapon 
nor  see  to  make  any  effective  resistance.  After  this 
battle  the  surrounding  races  became  tributary  to  them. 

Death  of  the  First  Men 

Now  the  first  men  felt  that  their  death-day  was  nigh, 
and  they  called  their  kin  and  dependents  around  them 
to  hear  their  dying  words.  In  the  grief  of  their  souls 
they  chanted  the  song  "  Kamucu,"  the  song  "  We  see," 
that  they  had  sung  so  joyfully  when  they  had  first  seen 
the  light  of  day.  Then  they  parted  from  their  wives 
and  sons  one  by  one.  And  of  a  sudden  they  were  not, 
and  in  their  place  was  a  great  bundle,  which  was  never 
opened.  It  was  called  the  "  Majesty  Enveloped."  So 
died  the  first  men  of  the  Kiche. 

In  this  book  it  is  clear  that  we  have  to  deal  with  the 
problem  which  the  origin  and  creation  of  man  pre- 
sented to  the  Maya-Kiche  mind.  The  several  myths 
connected  with  it  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of 
other  American  peoples.  In  the  mythology  of  the 
American  Indian  it  is  rare  to  find  an  Adam,  a  single 
figure  set  solitary  in  a  world  without  companionship  of 
some  sort.  Man  is  almost  invariably  the  child  of 
Mother  Earth,  and  emerges  from  some  cavern  or  sub- 
terranean country  fully  grown  and  fully  equipped  for 
the  upper  earth-life.  We  find  this  type  of  myth  in 
the  mythologies  of  the  Aztecs,  Peruvians,  Choctaws, 
Blackfeet  Indians,  and  those  of  many  other  American 
tribes. 


AMERICAN  MIGRATIONS 

American  Migrations 

We  also  find  in  the  story  of  the  Kiche  migration 
a  striking  similarity  to  the  migration  myths  of  other 
American  races.  But  in  the  Kiche  myth  we  can  trace  a 
definite  racial  movement  from  the  cold  north  to  the  warm 
south.  The  sun  is  not  at  first  born.  There  is  darkness. 
When  he  does  appear  he  is  weak  and  his  beams  are 
dull  and  watery  like  those  of  the  luminary  in  a 
northern  clime.  Again,  there  are  allusions  to  the 
crossing  of  rivers  by  means  of  "  shining  sand  "  which 
covered  them,  which  might  reasonably  be  held  to 
imply  the  presence  upon  them  of  ice.  In  this  con- 
nection we  may  quote  from  an  Aztec  migration 
myth  which  appears  almost  a  parallel  to  the  Kiche 
story. 

"  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  record  of  the  coming 
of  the  Mexicans  from  the  place  called  Aztlan.  It  is 
by  means  of  the  water  that  they  came  this  way,  being 
four  tribes,  and  in  coming  they  rowed  in  boats.  They 
built  their  huts  on  piles  at  the  place  called  the  grotto 
of  Quineveyan.  It  is  there  from  which  the  eight  tribes 
issued.  The  first  tribe  is  that  of  the  Huexotzincos, 
the  second  the  Chalcas,  the  third  the  Xochimilcos,  the 
fourth  the  Cuitlavacas,  the  fifth  the  Mallinalcas,  the 
sixth  the  Chichimecas,  the  seventh  the  Tepanecas, 
the  eighth  the  Matlatzincas.  It  is  there  where  they 
were  founded  in  Colhuacan.  They  were  the  colonists 
of  it  since  they  landed  there,  coming  from  Aztlan. 
...  It  is  there  that  they  soon  afterwards  went  away 
from,  carrying  with  them  their  god  Vitzillopochtli. 
.  .  .  There  the  eight  tribes  opened  up  our  road  by 
water." 

The  "  Wallum  Olum,"  or  painted  calendar  records, 
of  the  Leni-Lenape  Indians  contain  a  similar  myth. 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
"After  the  flood,"  says  the  story,  "  the  Lenape  with  the 
manly  turtle  beings  dwelt  close  together  at  the  cave 
house  and  dwelling  of  Talli.  .  .  .  They  saw  that  the 
snake-land  was  bright  and  wealthy.  Having  all 
agreed,  they  went  over  the  water  of  the  frozen  sea  to 
possess  the  land.  It  was  wonderful  when  they  all 
went  over  the  smooth  deep  water  of  the  frozen  sea  at 
the  gap  of  the  snake  sea  in  the  great  ocean." 

Do  these  myths  contain  any  essence  of  the  truth  ? 
Do  they  refer  to  an  actual  migration  when  the 
ancestors  of  certain  American  tribes  crossed  the  frozen 
ocean  of  the  Kamchatka  Strait  and  descended  from 
the  sunless  north  and  the  boreal  nij^ht  of  these  sub- 

O 

Arctic  regions  to  a  more  genial  clime  ?  Can  such  a 
tradition  have  been  preserved  throughout  the  countless 
ages  which  must  have  passed  between  the  arrival  of 
proto-Mongolian  man  in  America  and  the  writing  or 
composition  of  the  several  legends  cited  ?  Surely  not. 
But  may  there  not  have  been  later  migrations  from  the 
north  ?  May  not  hordes  of  folk  distantly  akin  to  the 
first  Americans  have  swept  across  the  frozen  strait,  and 
within  a  few  generations  have  made  their  way  into  the 
warmer  regions,  as  we  know  the  Nahua  did  ?  The 
Scandinavian  vikings  who  reached  north-eastern 
America  in  the  tenth  century  found  there  a  race 
totally  distinct  from  the  Red  Man,  and  more  ap- 
proaching the  Esquimaux,  whom  they  designated 
Skrellingr,  or  "  Chips,"  so  small  and  misshapen  were 
they.  Such  a  description  could  hardly  have  been 
applied  to  the  North  American  Indian  as  we  know 
him.  From  the  legends  of  the  Red  race  of  North 
America  we  may  infer  that  they  remained  for  a  number 
of  generations  in  the  Far  West  of  the  North  American 
continent  before  they  migrated  eastward.  And  a 
guess  might  be  hazarded  to  the  effect  that,  arriving  in 


COSMOGONY  OF  THE  POPOL  VUH 

America  somewhere  about  the  dawn  of  the  Christian 
era,  they  spread  slowly  in  a  south-easterly  direction, 
arriving  in  the  eastern  parts  of  North  America  about 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  or  even  a  little  later. 
This  would  mean  that  such  a  legend  as  that  which  we 
have  just  perused  would  only  require  to  have  survived 
a  thousand  years,  provided  the  Popol  Vuh  was  first 
composed  about  the  eleventh  century,  as  appears 
probable.  But  such  speculations  are  somewhat  dan- 
gerous in  the  face  of  an  almost  complete  lack  of 
evidence,  and  must  be  met  with  the  utmost  caution 
and  treated  as  surmises  only. 

Cosmogony  of  the  "Popol  Vuh** 

We  have  now  completed  our  brief  survey  of  the 
mythological  portion  of  the  Popol  Vuhy  and  it  will  be 
well  at  this  point  to  make  some  inquiries  into  the 
origin  and  nature  of  the  various  gods,  heroes,  and 
similar  personages  who  fill  its  pages.  Before  doing 
so,  however,  let  us  glance  at  the  creation-myth  which 
we  find  detailed  in  the  first  book.  We  can  see  by 
internal  evidence  that  this  must  be  the  result  of  the 
fusion  of  more  than  one  creation-story.  We  find  in  the 
myth  that  mention  is  made  of  a  number  of  beings  each 
of  whom  appears  to  exercise  in  some  manner  the  func- 
tions of  a  creator  or  "  moulder."  These  beings  also 
appear  to  have  similar  attributes.  There  is  evidently  here 
the  reconciliation  of  early  rival  faiths.  We  know  that  this 
occurred  in  Peruvian  cosmogony,  which  is  notoriously 
composite,  and  many  another  mythology,  European 
and  Asiatic,  exhibits  a  like  phenomenon.  Even  in  the 
creation-story  as  given  in  Genesis  we  can  discover  the 
fusion  of  two  separate  accounts  from  the  allusion  to 
the  creative  power  as  both  "  Jahveh  "  and  "  Elohim," 
the  plural  ending  of  the  second  name  proving 

235 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
the  presence  of  polytheistic  as   well  as    monotheistic 
conceptions. 

Antiquity  of  the  "  Popol  Vuh  " 

These  considerations  lead  to  the  assumption  that  the 
Popol  Vuh  is  a  mythological  collection  of  very  consider- 
able antiquity,  as  the  fusion  of  religious  beliefs  is  a 
comparatively  slow  process.  It  is,  of  course,  in  the 
absence  of  other  data,  impossible  to  fix  the  date  of  its 
origin,  even  approximately.  We  possess  only  the  one 
version  of  this  interesting  work,  so  that  we  are  com- 
pelled to  confine  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of  that 
alone,  and  are  without  the  assistance  which  philology 
would  lend  us  by  a  comparison  of  two  versions  of 
different  dates. 

The  Father-Mother  Gods 

We  discover  a  pair  of  dual  beings  concerned  in  the 
Kiche  creation.  These  are  Xpiyacoc  and  Xmucane, 
the  Father-Mother  deities,  and  are  obviously  Kiche 
equivalents  to  the  Mexican  Ometecutli-Omeciuatl, 
whom  we  have  already  noticed  (pp.  103-4).  The  former 
is  the  male  fructifier,  whilst  the  name  of  the  latter 
signifies  "  Female  Vigour."  These  deities  were 
probably  regarded  as  hermaphroditic,  as  numerous 
North  American  Indian  gods  appear  to  be,  and  may 
be  analogous  to  the  "  Father  Sky "  and  "  Mother 
Earth  "  of  so  many  mythologies. 

Gucumatz 

We  also  find  Gucumatz  concerned  in  the  Kiche 
scheme  of  creation.  He  was  a  Maya-Kiche  form  of 
the  Mexican  Quetzalcoatl,  or  perhaps  the  converse 
was  the  case.  The  name  signifies,  like  its  Nahua 
equivalent,  "  Serpent  with  Green  Feathers." 


METRICAL  ORIGIN  OF  THE  POPOL  VUH 

Hurakan 

Hurakan,  the  wind-god,  "  He  who  hurls  below," 
whose  name  perhaps  signifies  "The  One-legged,"  is 
probably  the  same  as  the  Nahua  Tezcatlipoca.  It  has 
been  suggested  that  the  word  "hurricane"  has  been 
evolved  from  the  name  of  this  god,  but  the  derivation 
seems  rather  too  fortuitous  to  be  real.  Hurakan  had 
the  assistance  of  three  sub-gods,  Cakulha-Hurakan 
(Lightning),  Chipi-Cakulha  (Lightning-flash),  and 
Raxa-Cakulha  (Track  of  the  Lightning). 

Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque 

Hun-Apu  and  Xbalanque,  the  hero-gods,  appear 
to  have  the  attributes  of  demi-gods  in  general.  The 
name  Hun-Apu  means  "  Master  "  or  "  Magician,"  and 
Xbalanque  "  Little  Tiger. "  We  find  many  such  figures 
in  American  myth,  which  is  rich  in  hero-gods. 

Vukub-CakJx  and  his  Sons 

Vukub-Cakix  and  his  progeny  are,  of  course,  earth- 
giants  like  the  Titans  of  Greek  mytnology  or  the  Jotuns 
of  Scandinavian  story.  The  removal  of  the  emerald 
teeth  of  Vukub-Cakix  and  their  replacement  by  grains 
of  maize  would  seem  to  be  a  mythical  interpretation  or 
allegory  of  the  removal  of  the  virgin  turf  of  the  earth 
and  its  replacement  by  maize-seed.  Therefore  it  is 
possible  that  Vukub-Cakix  is  an  earth-god,  and  not  a 
prehistoric  sun-and-moon  god,  as  stated  by  Dr.  Seler.1 

Metrical  Origin  of  the  "Popol  Vuh" 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  Popol  Vuh  was 
originally  a  metrical  composition.  This  would  assist  the 

1  Sec  my  remarks  on  this  subject  in  The  Pofo/  Puh,  pp.  41,  52 
(London,  1908). 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

hypothesis  of  its  antiquity,  on  the  ground  that  it  was 
for  generations  recited  before  being  reduced  to  writing. 
Passages  here  and  there  exhibit  a  decided  metrical 
tendency,  and  one  undoubtedly  applies  to  a  descriptive 
dance  symbolical  of  sunrise.  It  is  as  follows  : 

"'Ama  x-u  ch'ux  ri  Vuch?' 
*  Ve,'  x-cha  ri  mama. 
Ta  chi  xaquinic. 
Quate  ta  chi  gecumarchic. 
Cahmul  xaquin  ri  mama. 
'Ca  xaquin- Vuch,'  ca  cha  vinak  racamic." 

This  may  be  rendered  freely  : 

"  '  Is  the  dawn  about  to  be  ?  * 
'  Yes,'  answered  the  old  man. 
Then  he  spread  apart  his  legs. 
Again  the  darkness  appeared. 
Four  times  the  old  man  spread  his  legs. 
'  Now  the  opossum  spreads  his  legs,' 
Say  the  people." 

It  is  obvious  that  many  of  these  lines  possess  the 
well-known  quality  of  savage  dance-poetry,  which  dis- 
plays itself  in  a  rhythm  of  one  long  foot  followed  by 
two  short  ones.  We  know  that  the  Kiche  were  very 
fond  of  ceremonial  dances,  and  of  repeating  long  chants 
which  they  called  nugum  tzih,  or  "  garlands  of  words," 
and  the  Popol  Vuh^  along  with  other  matter,  probably 
contained  many  of  these. 

Pseudo'History  of  the  Kiche 

The  fourth  book  of  the  Popoi,  Vuh  contains  the 
pseudo-history  of  the  Kiche  kings.  It  is  obviously 
greatly  confused,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  how 
much  of  it  originally  belonged  to  the  Popol  Vuh  and 
how  much  had  been  added  or  invented  by  its  latest 
compiler.  One  cannot  discriminate  between  saga  and 
M8 


.QUEEN  M6O 

history,  or  between  monarchs  and  gods,  the  real  and 
the  fabulous.  Interminable  conflicts  are  the  theme  of 
most  of  the  book,  and  many  migrations  are  recounted. 

Queen  Moo 

Whilst  dealing  with  Maya  pseudo-history  it  will  be 
well  to  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  theories  of  the  late 
Augustus  Le  Plongeon,  who  lived  and  carried  on 
excavations  in  Yucatan  for  many  years.  Dr.  Le  Plon- 
geon was  obsessed  with  the  idea  that  the  ancient  Maya 
spread  their  civilisation  all  over  the  habitable  globe, 
and  that  they  were  the  originators  of  the  Egyptian, 
Palestinian,  and  Hindu  civilisations,  besides  many 
others.  He  furthermore  believed  himself  to  be  the 
true  elucidator  of  the  Maya  system  of  hieroglyphs, 
which  in  his  estimation  were  practically  identical  with 
the  Egyptian.  We  will  not  attempt  to  refute  his 
theories,  as  they  are  based  on  ignorance  of  the  laws 
which  govern  philology,  anthropology,  and  mythology. 
But  he  possessed  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Maya 
tongue,  and  his  acquaintance  with  Maya  customs  was 
extensive  and  peculiar.  One  of  his  ideas  was  that  a 
certain  hall  among  the  ruins  of  Chichen-Itza  had  been 
built  by  a  Queen  Moo,  a  Maya  princess  who  after  the 
tragic  fate  of  her  brother-husband  and  the  catastrophe 
which  ended  in  the  sinking  of  the  continent  of  Atlantis 
fled  to  Egypt,  where  she  founded  the  ancient  Egyptian 
civilisation.  It  would  be  easy  to  refute  this  theory. 
But  the  tale  as  told  by  Dr.  Le  Plongeon  possesses  a 
sufficiency  of  romantic  interest  to  warrant  its  being 
rescued  from  the  little-known  volume  in  which  he 
published  it.1 

We  do  not  learn  from  Dr.  Le  Plongeon's  book  by 
what  course  of  reasoning  he  came  to  discover  that  the 

1  Qutfn  Moo  and  tie  Egyptian  Sphinx  (London,  1896). 

239 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

name  of  his  heroine  was  the  rather  uneuphonious  one 
of  Moo.  Probably  he  arrived  at  it  by  the  same  pro- 
cess as  that  by  which  he  discovered  that  certain  Mayan 
architectural  ornaments  were  in  reality  Egyptian  letters. 
But  it  will  be  better  to  let  him  tell  his  story  in  his  own 
words.  It  is  as  follows  : 

The  Funeral  Chamber 

"  As  we  are  about  to  enter  the  funeral  chamber  hal- 
lowed by  the  love  of  the  sister-wife,  Queen  Moo,  the 
beauty  of  the  carvings  on  the  zapote  beam  that  forms 
the  lintel  of  the  doorway  calls  our  attention.  Here  is 
represented  the  antagonism  of  the  brothers  Aac  and 
Coh,  that  led  to  the  murder  or  the  latter  by  the 
former.  Carved  on  the  lintel  are  the  names  of  these 
personages,  represented  by  their  totems — a  leopard  head 
for  Coh,  and  a  boar  head  as  well  as  a  turtle  for  Aac, 
this  word  meaning  both  boar  and  turtle  in  Maya.  Aac 
is  pictured  within  the  disk  of  the  sun,  his  protective 
deity  which  he  worshipped,  according  to  mural  inscrip- 
tions at  Uxmal.  Full  of  anger  he  faces  his  brother. 
In  his  right  hand  there  is  a  badge  ornamented  with 
feathers  and  flowers.  The  threatening  way  in  which 
this  is  held  suggests  a  concealed  weapon.  .  .  .  The 
face  of  Coh  also  expresses  anger.  With  him  is  the 
feathered  serpent,  emblematic  of  royalty,  thence  of  the 
country,  more  often  represented  as  a  winged  serpent 
protecting  Coh.  In  his  left  hand  he  holds  his  weapon 
down,  whilst  his  right  hand  clasps  his  badge  of 
authority,  with  which  he  covers  his  breasts  as  for  pro- 
tection, and  demanding  the  respect  due  to  his  rank.  .  .  . 

"  Passing  between  the  figures  of  armed  chieftains 
sculptured  on  the  jambs  of  the  doorway,  and  seeming 
like  sentinels  guarding  the  entrance  of  the  funeral 
chamber,  we  notice  one  wearing  a  headdress  similar  to 


Queen  M6o  has  her  Destiny  foretold 
Gilbert  James 


240 


THE  SOOTHSAYERS 

the  crown  of  Lower  Egypt,  which  formed  part  of  the 
pshent  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs. 

The  Fresco  j 

"  The  frescoes  in  the  funeral  chamber  of  Prince  Con's 
Memorial  Hall,  painted  in  water-colours  taken  from 
the  viable  kingdom,  are  divided  into  a  series  of 
tableaux  separated  by  blue  lines.  The  plinths,  the 
angles  of  the  room,  and  the  edges  of  the  ceiling,  being 
likewise  painted  blue,  indicate  that  this  was  intended 
for  a  funeral  chamber.  .  .  .  The  first  scene  represents 
Queen  M6o  while  yet  a  child.  She  is  seated  on  the 
back  of  a  peccary,  or  American  wild  boar,  under  the 
royal  umbrella  of  feathers,  emblem  of  royalty  in 
Mayach,  as  it  was  in  India,  Chaldea,  and  other  places. 
She  is  consulting  a  h-meny  or  wise  man  ;  listening  with 
profound  attention  to  the  decrees  of  fate  as  revealed 
by  the  cracking  of  the  shell  of  an  armadillo  exposed 
to  a  slow  fire  on  a  brazier,  the  condensing  on  it  of 
the  vapour,  and  the  various  tints  it  assumes.  This 
mode  of  divination  is  one  of  the  customs  of  the 
Mayas.  .  .  . 

The  Soothsayers 

"  In  front  of  the  young  Queen  M6o,  and  facing  her, 
is  seated  the  soothsayer,  evidently  a  priest  of  high  rank, 
judging  from  the  colours,  blue  and  yellow,  of  the 
feathers  of  his  ceremonial  mantle.  He  reads  the 
decrees  of  fate  on  the  snell  of  the  armadillo,  and  the 
scroll  issuing  from  his  throat  says  what  they  are.  By 
him  stands  the  winged  serpent,  emblem  and  protective 
genius  of  the  Maya  Empire.  His  head  is  turned 
towards  the  royal  banner,  which  he  seems  to  caress. 
His  satisfaction  is  reflected  in  \.AC  mild  and  pleased 
expression  of  his  face.  Behind  the  priest,  the  position 

Q  »4* 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
of  whose  hand  is  the  same  as  that  of  Catholic  priests 
in  blessing  their  congregation,  and  the   significance  of 
which   is  well   known  to   occultists,  are  the  ladies-in- 
waiting  of  the  young  Queen. 

The  Royal  Bride 

"  In  another  tableau  we  again  see  Queen  M6o,  no 
longer  a  child,  but  a  comely  young  woman.  She  is 
not  seated  under  the  royal  umbrella  or  banner,  but  she 
is  once  more  in  the  presence  of  the  h-men,  whose  face 
is  concealed  by  a  mask  representing  an  owl's  head. 
She,  pretty  and  coquettish,  has  many  admirers,  who 
vie  with  each  other  for  the  honour  of  her  hand.  In 
company  with  one  of  her  wooers  she  comes  to  consult 
the  priest,  accompanied  ,by  an  old  lady,  her  grand- 
mother probably,  and  her  female  attendants.  According 
to  custom  the  old  lady  is  the  spokeswoman.  She  states 
to  the  priest  that  the  young  man,  he  who  sits  on  a  low 
stool  between  two  female  attendants,  desires  to  marry 
the  Queen.  The  priest's  attendant,  seated  also  ort  a 
stool,  back  of  all,  acts  as  crier,  and  repeats  in  a  loud 
voice  the  speech  of  the  old  lady. 

Moo's  Refusal 

"The  young  Queen  refuses  the  offer.  The  refusal 
is  indicated  by  the  direction  of  the  scroll  issuing  from 
her  mouth.  It  is  turned  backward,  instead  of  forward 
towards  the  priest,  as  would  be  the  case  if  she  assented 
to  the  marriage.  The  h-men  explains  that  Moo,  being 
a  daughter  or  the  royal  family,  by  law  and  custom 
must  marry  one  of  her  brothers.  The  youth  listens  to 
the  decision  with  due  respect  to  the  priest,  as  shown 
by  his  arm  being  placed  across  his  breast,  the  left  hand 
resting  on  the  right  shoulder.  He  does  not  accept  the 
24* 


00 

a 
o 

S 


M 


THE  REJECTED  SUITOR 

refusal  in  a  meek  spirit,  however.  His  clenched  fist, 
his  foot  raised  as  in  the  act  of  stamping,  betoken  anger 
and  disappointment,  while  the  attendant  behind  him 
expostulates,  counselling  patience  and  resignation, 
judging  by  the  position  and  expression  of  her  left- 
hand  palm  upward. 

The  Rejected  Suitor 

"In  another  tableau  we  see  the  same  individual 
whose  offer  of  marriage  was  rejected  by  the  young 
Queen  in  consultation  with  a  nubchi^  or  prophet,  a 
priest  whose  exalted  rank  is  indicated  by  his  head- 
dress, and  the  triple  breastplate  he  wears  over  his 
mantle  of  feathers.  The  consulter,  evidently  a  person 
of  importance,  has  come  attended  by  his  hachetail,  or 
confidential  friend,  who  sits  behind  him  on  a  cushion. 
The  expression  on  the  face  of  the  said  consulter  shows 
that  he  does  not  accept  patiently  the  decrees  of  fate, 
although  conveyed  by  the  interpreter  in  as  conciliatory 
a  manner  as  possible.  The  adverse  decision  of  the 
gods  is  manifested  by  the  sharp  projecting  centre  part 
of  the  scroll,  but  it  is  wrapped  in  words  as  persuasive 
and  consoling,  preceded  by  as  smooth  a  preamble  as 
the  rich  and  beautiful  Maya  language  permits  and 
makes  easy.  His  friend  is  addressing  the  prophet's 
assistant.  Reflecting  the  thoughts  of  his  lord,  he 
declares  that  the  nubchi's  fine  discourse  and  his  pre- 
tended reading  of  the  will  of  the  gods  are  all  nonsense, 
and  exclaims  c  Pshaw  1 '  which  contemptuous  exclama- 
tion is  pictured  by  the  yellow  scroll,  pointed  at  both 
ends,  escaping  from  his  nose  like  a  sneeze.  The 
answer  of  the  priest's  assistant,  evidenced  by  the 
gravity  of  his  features,  the  assertive  position  of  his 
hand,  and  the  bluntness  of  his  speech,  is  evidently 
*  It  is  so  1' 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Aac's  Fierce  Wooing 

"  Her  brother  Aac  is  madly  in  love  with  M6o.  He 
is  portrayed  approaching  the  interpreter  of  the  will  of 
the  gods,  divested  of  his  garments  in  token  of  humility 
in  presence  of  their  majesty  and  of  submission  to 
their  decrees.  He  comes  full  of  arrogance,  arrayed  in 
gorgeous  attire,  and  with  regal  pomp.  He  comes  not 
as  a  suppliant  to  ask  and  accept  counsel,  but  haughty, 
he  makes  bold  to  dictate.  He  is  angered  at  the  refusal 
of  the  priest  to  accede  to  his  demand  for  his  sister 
M6o's  hand,  to  whose  totem,  an  armadillo  on  this 
occasion,  he  points  imperiously.  It  was  on  an  arma- 
dillo's shell  that  the  fates  wrote  her  destiny  when 
consulted  by  the  performance  of  the  Pou  ceremony. 
The  yellow  flames  of  wrath  darting  from  all  over  his 
person,  the  sharp  yellow  scroll  issuing  from  his  mouth, 
symbolise  Aac's  feelings.  The  pontiff,  however,  is 
unmoved  by  them.  In  the  name  of  the  gods  with 
serene  mien  he  denies  the  request  of  the  proud  noble- 
man, as  his  speech  indicates.  The  winged  serpent, 
genius  of  the  country,  that  stands  erect  and  ireful  by 
Aac,  is  also  wroth  at  his  pretensions,  and  shows  in  its 
features  and  by  sending  its  dart  through  Aac's  royal 
banner  a  decided  opposition  to  them,  expressed  by  the 
ends  of  his  speech  being  turned  backwards,  some  of 
them  terminating  abruptly,  others  in  sharp  points. 

Prince  Coh 

"  Prince  Coh  sits  behind  the  priest  as  one  of  his 
attendants.  He  witnesses  the  scene,  hears  the  calnc 
negative  answer,  sees  the  anger  of  his  brother  and 
rival,  smiles  at  his  impotence,  is  happy  at  his  dis- 
comfiture. Behind  him,  however,  sits  a  spy  who  will 
repeat  his  words,  report  his  actions  to  his  enemy.  He 
»44 


THE  MURDER  OF  COH 

listens,  he  watches.  The  high-priest  himself,  Cay, 
their  elder  brother,  sees  the  storm  that  is  brewing 
behind  the  dissensions  of  Coh  and  Aac.  He  trembles 
at  the  thought  of  the  misfortunes  that  will  surely 
befall  the  dynasty  of  the  Cans,  of  the  ruin  and  misery 
of  the  country  that  will  certainly  follow.  Divested  of 
his  priestly  raiment,  he  comes  nude  and  humble  as  it 
is  proper  for  men  in  the  presence  of  the  gods,  to  ask 
their  advice  how  best  to  avoid  the  impending  calamities. 
The  chief  of  the  auspices  is  in  the  act  of  reading  their 
decrees  on  the  palpitating  entrails  of  a  fish.  The  sad 
expression  on  his  face,  that  of  humble  resignation  on 
that  of  the  pontiff,  of  deferential  astonishment  on  that 
of  the  assistant,  speak  of  the  inevitable  misfortunes 
which  are  to  come  in  the  near  future. 

"  We  pass  over  interesting  battle  scenes  ...  in 
which  the  defenders  have  been  defeated  by  the  Mayas. 
Coh  will  return  to  his  queen  loaded  with  spoils  that  he 
will  lay  at  her  feet  with  his  glory,  which  is  also  hers. 

The  Murder  of  Coh 

"  We  next  see  him  in  a  terrible  altercation  with  his 
brother  Aac.  The  figures  in  that  scene  are  nearly  life- 
size,  but  so  much  disfigured  and  broken  as  to  make  it 
impossible  to  obtain  good  tracings.  Coh  is  portrayed 
without  weapons,  his  fists  clenched,  looking  menacingly 
at  his  foe,  who  holds  three  spears,  typical  of  the  three 
wounds  he  inflicted  in  his  brother's  back  when  he  killed 
him  treacherously.  Coh  is  now  kid  out,  being  pre- 
pared for  cremation.  His  body  has  been  opened  at  the 
ribs  to  extract  the  viscera  and  heart,  which,  after  being 
charred,  are  to  be  preserved  in  a  stone  urn  with  cinnabar, 
where  the  writer  found  them  in  1875.  His  sister-wife, 
Queen  M6o,  in  sad  contemplation  of  the  remains  of 
the  beloved,  .  .  .  kneels  at  his  feet.  .  .  .  The  winged 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
serpent,  protective  genius  of  the  country,  is  pictured 
without  a  head.      The  ruler  of  the  country  has  been 
slain.     He  is  dead.     The  people  are  without  a  chief." 

The  Widowhood  of  Moo 

The  widowhood  of  M6o  is  then  said  to  be  portrayed 
in  subsequent  pictures.  Other  suitors,  among  them 
Aac,  make  their  proposals  to  her,  but  she  refuses  them 
all.  "Aac's  pride  being  humiliated,  his  love  turned  to 
hatred.  His  only  wish  henceforth  was  to  usurp  the 
supreme  power,  to  wage  war  against  the  friend  of  his 
childhood.  He  made  religious  disagreement  the  pre- 
text. He  proclaimed  that  the  worship  of  the  sun  was 
to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  winged  serpent,  the  genius 
of  the  country  ;  also  to  that  of  the  worship  of  ancestors, 
typified  by  the  feathered  serpent,  with  horns  and  a  flame 
or  halo  on  the  head.  .  .  .  Prompted  by  such  evil  pas- 
sions, he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his  own  vassals, 
and  attacked  those  who  had  remained  faithful  to  Queen 
Moo  and  to  Prince  Coh's  memory.  At  first  Moo's 
adherents  successfully  opposed  her  foes.  The  contend- 
ing parties,  forgetting  in  the  strife  that  they  were 
children  of  the  same  soil,  blinded  by  their  prejudices, 
let  their  passions  have  the  better  of  their  reason.  At 
last  Queen  Moo  fell  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  her 
enemy." 

The  Manuscript  Troano 

Dr.  Le  Plongeon  here  assumes  that  the  story  is  taken 
up  by  the  Manuscript  Troano.  As  no  one  is  able  to 
decipher  this  manuscript  completely,  he  is  pretty  safe  in 
nis  assertion.  Here  is  what  the  pintura  alluded  to  says 
regarding  Queen  M6o,  according  to  our  author  : 

"The  people  of  Mayach  having  been  whipped  into 
submission  and  cowed,  no  longer  opposing  much  resist* 

2+6 


THE  MANUSCRIPT  TROANO 

ancc,  the  lord  seized  her  by  the  hair,  and,  in  common 
with  others,  caused  her  to  suffer  from  blows.  This 
happened  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  tenth  month  of  the 
year  Kan.  Being  completely  routed,  she  passed  to  the 
opposite  sea-coast  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  country, 
which  had  already  suffered  much  injury." 

Here  we  shall  leave  the  Queen,  and  those  who  have 
been  sufficiently  credulous  to  create  and  believe  in  her 
and  her  companions.  We  do  not  aver  that  the  illus- 
trations on  the  walls  of  the  temple  at  Chichen  do  not 
allude  to  some  such  incident,  or  series  of  incidents,  as 
Dr.  Le  Plongeon  describes,  but  to  bestow  names  upon 
the  dramatis  persona  in  the  face  of  almost  complete 
inability  to  read  the  Maya  script  and  a  total  dearth  of 
accompanying  historical  manuscripts  is  merely  futile, 
and  we  must  regard  Dr.  Le  Plongeon's  narrative  as  a 
quite  fanciful  rendering  of  probability.  At  the  same 
time,  the  light  which  he  throws — if  some  obviously 
unscientific  remarks  be  deducted — on  the  customs  of 
the  Maya  renders  his  account  of  considerable  interest, 
and  that  must  be  our  excuse  for  presenting  it  here  at 
some  length. 


PlE(I  OF   PoTTEFY   REPRESENTING 

(«tou  GUATEMALA) 


«47 


CHAPTER  VI :  THE  CIVILISATION  OF 
OLD  PERU 

Old  Peru 

IF  the  civilisation  of  ancient  Peru  did  not  achieve 
the  standard  of  general  culture  reached  by  the 
Mexicans  and  Maya,  it  did  not  fall  far  short  of 
the  attainment  of  these  peoples.  But  the  degrading 
despotism  under  which  the  peasantry  groaned  in  Inca 
times,  and  the  brutal  and  sanguinary  tyranny  of  the 
Apu-Ccapac  Incas,  make  the  rulers  of  Mexico  at  their 
worst  appear  as  enlightened  when  compared  with  the 
Peruvian  governing  classes.  The  Quichua-Aymara 
race  which  inhabited  Peru  was  inferior  to  the  Mexican 
in  general  mental  culture,  if  not  in  mental  capacity,  is 
is  proved  by  its  inability  to  invent  any  method  of 
written  communication  or  any  adequate  time-reckoning. 
In  imitative  art,  too,  the  Peruvians  were  weak,  save  in 
pottery  and  rude  modelling,  and  their  religion  savoured 
much  more  of  the  materialistic,  and  was  altogether  of -a 
lower  cultus. 

The  Country 

The  country  in  which  the  interesting  civilisation  of 
the  Inca  race  was  evolved  presents  physical  features 
which  profoundly  affected  the  history  of  the  race.  In 
fact,  it  is  probable  that  in  no  country  in  the  world  has 
the  configuration  of  the  land  so  modified  the  events  in 
the  life  of  the  people  dwelling  within  its  borders.  The 
chain  of  the  Andes  divides  into  two  branches  near  the 
boundary  between  Bolivia  and  Chili,  and,  with  the 
Cordillera  de  la  Costa,  encloses  at  a  height  of  over 
3000  feet  the  Desaguadero,  a  vast  tableland  with  an 
area  equal  to  France.  To  the  north  of  this  is  Cuzco, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  Incas,  to  the  south  Potosi, 


3  3 

rt    o 


<tf      '-— i 

1  ° 

I  § 


THE  ANDEANS 

the  most  elevated  town  in  the  world,  whilst  between 
them  lies  Lake  Titicaca,  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water 
in  South  America.  The  whole  country  is  dreary  and 
desolate  in  the  extreme.  Cereals  cannot  ripen,  and 
animals  are  rare.  Yet  it  was  in  these  desolate  regions 
that  the  powerful  and  highly  organised  empire  of  Peru 
arose — an  empire  extending  over  an  area  3000  miles 
long  by  400  broad. 

The  Andears 

The  prehistoric  natives  of  the  Andean  regioii  had 
evolved  a  civilisation  long  before  the  days  of  the 
Inca  dynasties,  and  the  Cyclopean  ruins  of  their 
edifices  are  to  be  found  at  intervals  scattered  over  a 
wide  field  on  the  slopes  of  the  range  under  the  shadow 
of  which  they  dwelt.  Their  most  extraordinary 
achievement  was  probably  the  city  of  Tiahuanaco,  on 
the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca,  built  at  a  level 
13,000  feet  above  the  sea,  occupying  nearly  half  an 
acre  in  extent,  and  constructed  of  enormous  megalithic 
blocks  of  trachytic  rock.  The  great  doorway,  carved 
out  of  a  single  block  of  rock,  is  7  feet  in  height  by 
13^-  feet  wide,  and  i|-  feet  thick.  The  upper  portion  of 
this  massive  portal  is  carved  with  symbolic  figures.  In 
the  centre  is  a  figure  in  high  relief,  the  head  sur- 
rounded by  solar  rays,  and  in  each  hand  a  sceptre,  the 
end  of  which  terminates  in  the  head  of  a  condor.  This 
figure  is  flanked  on  either  side  by  three  tiers  of  kneeling 
suppliants,  each  of  whom  is  winged  and  bears  a  sceptre 
similar  in  design  to  the  central  ones.  Elsewhere  are 
mighty  blocks  of  stone,  some  36  feet  long,  remains  of 
enormous  walls,  standing  monoliths,  and  in  earlier 
times  colossal  statues  were  seen  on  the  site.  When 
the  Spanish  conquerors  arrived  no  tradition  remained 
regarding  the  founders  of  these  structures^  and  their 

•49 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

origin  still  remains  a  mystery  ;  but  that  they  represent 
the  remains  of  the  capital  of  some  mighty  prehistoric 
kingdom  is  practically  admitted. 

A  Strange  Site 

The  greatest  mystery  of  all  regarding  the  ruins  at 
Tiahuanaco  is  the  selection  of  the  site.  For  what 
reason  did  the  prehistoric  rulers  of  Peru  build  here  ? 
The  surroundings  are  totally  unsuitable  for  the  raising 
of  such  edifices,  and  the  tableland  upon  which  they  are 
placed  is  at  once  desolate  and  difficult  of  access.  The 
snow-line  is  contiguous,  and  breathing  at  such  a  height 
is  no  easy  matter.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
climatic  conditions  in  the  day  of  these  colossal  builders 
were  different  from  those  which  obtain  at  the  present 
time.  In  face  of  these  facts  the  position  of  Tiahuanaco 
remains  an  insoluble  riddle. 

Sacsahuaman  and  Ollantay 

Other  remains  of  these  prehistoric  people  are  found 
in  various  parts  of  Peru.  At  Sacsahuaman,  perched  on 
a  hill  above  the  city  of  Cuzco,  is  an  immense  fortified 
work  six  hundred  yards  long,  built  in  three  lines  of  wall 
consisting  of  enormous  stones,  some  of  which  are  twenty- 
seven  feet  in  length.  Pissac  is  also  the  site  of  wonder- 
ful ruined  masonry  and  an  ancient  observatory.  At 
Ollantay-tampu,  forty-five  miles  to  the  north  of  Cuzco, 
is  another  of  these  gigantic  fortresses,  built  to  defend 
the  valley  of  the  Yucay.  This  stronghold  is  constructed 
for  the  most  part  of  red  porphyry,  and  its  walls  average 
twenty-five  feet  in  height.  The  great  cliff  on  which 
Ollantay  is  perched  is  covered  from  end  to  end  with 
stupendous  walls  which  zigzag  from  point  to  point  of 
it  like  the  salient  angles  of  some  modern  fortalice. 
At  intervals  are  placed  round  towers  of  stone  provided 
•50 


3    ,3 
o,  2 


. 

CO 

5  * 

«  3 


THE  DRAMA-LEGEND  OF  OLLANTAY 

with  loopholes,  from  which  doubtless  arrows  were 
discharged  at  the  enemy.  This  outwork  embraces  a 
series  of  terraces,  world-famous  because  of  their 
gigantic  outline  and  the  problem  of  the  use  to  which 
they  were  put.  It  is  now  practically  agreed  that  these 
terraces  were  employed  for  the  production  of  maize,  in 
order  that  during  a  prolonged  investment  the  beleaguered 
troops  and  country-folk  might  not  want  fora  sufficiency 
of  provender.  The  stone  of  which  this  fortress  was 
built  was  quarried  at  a  distance  of  seven  miles,  in  a 
spot  upwards  of  three  thousand  feet  above  the  valley, 
and  was  dragged  up  the  steep  declivity  of  Ollantay  by 
sheer  human  strength.  The  nicety  with  which  the 
stones  were  fitted  is  marvellous. 

The  Drama-Legend  of  Ollantay 

Among  the  dramatic  works  with  which  the  ancient 
Incas  were  credited  is  that  of  Apu-Ollanta,  which  may 
recount  the  veritable  story  of  a  chieftain  after  whom 
the  great  stronghold  was  named.  It  was  probably 
divided  into  scenes  and  supplied  with  stage  directions 
at  a  later  period,  but  the  dialogue  and  songs  are  truly 
aboriginal.  The  period  is  that  of  the  reign  of  the  Inca 
Yupanqui  Pachacutic,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Peruvian  monarchs.  The  central  figure  of  the  drama 
is  a  chieftain  named  Ollanta,  who  conceived  a  violent 
passion  for  a  daughter  of  the  Inca  named  Curi-Coyllur 
(Joyful  Star).  This  passion  was  deemed  unlawful,  as 
no  mere  subject  who  was  not  of  the  blood-royal  might 
aspire  to  the  hand  of  a  daughter  of  the  Inca.  As  the 
play  opens  we  overhear  a  dialogue  between  Ollanta 
and  his  man-servant  Piqui-Chaqui  (Flea-footed),  who 
supplies  what  modern  stage-managers  would  designate 
the  "comic  relief."  They  are  talking  of  Ollanta's 
love  for  the  princess,  when  they  are  confronted  by  the 

251 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

high-priest  of  the  Sun,  who  tries  to  dissuade  the  rash 
chieftain  from  the  dangerous  course  he  is  taking  by 
means  of  a  miracle.  In  the  next  scene  Curi-Coyllur  is 
seen  in  company  with  her  mother,  sorrowing  over  the 
absence  of  her  lover.  A  harvest  song  is  here  followed 
by  a  love  ditty  of  undoubtedly  ancient  origin.  The 
third  scene  represents  Ollanta's  interview  with  the  Inca 
in  which  he  pleads  his  suit  and  is  slighted  by  the 
scornful  monarch.  Ollanta  defies  the  king  in  a 
resounding  speech,  with  which  the  first  act  concludes. 
In  the  first  scene  of  the  second  act  we  are  informed 
that  the  disappointed  chieftain  has  raised  the  standard 
of  rebellion,  and  the  second  scene  is  taken  up  with  the 
military  preparations  consequent  upon  the  announce- 
ment of  a  general  rising.  In  the  third  scene  Rumi- 
naui  as  general  of  the  royal  forces  admits  defeat  by  the 
rebels. 

The  Love'Story  of  Curi'Coyllur 

Curi-Coyllur  gives  birth  to  a  daughter,  and  is 
imprisoned  in  the  darksome  Convent  of  Virgins. 
Her  child,  Yma  Sumac  (How  Beautiful),  is  brought 
up  in  the  same  building,  but  is  ignorant  of  the  near 
presence  of  her  mother.  The  little  girl  tells  her 
guardian  of  groans  and  lamentations  which  she  has 
heard  in  the  convent  garden,  and  of  the  tumultuous 
emotions  with  which  these  sad  sounds  fill  her  heart. 
The  Inca  Pachacutic's  death  is  announced,  and  the 
accession  of  his  son,  Yupanqui.  Rebellion  breaks  out 
once  more,  and  the  suppression  of  the  malcontents  is 
again  entrusted  to  Rumi-naui.  That  leader,  having 
tasted  defeat  already,  resorts  to  cunning.  He  conceals 
his  men  in  a  valley  close  by,  and  presents  himself 
covered  with  blood  before  Ollanta,  who  is  at  the 
head  of  the  rebels.  He  states  that  he  has  been 


Mother  and  child  are  united 

William  Sewell 


252 


THE  RACES  OF  PERU 

barbarously  used  by  the  royal  troops,  and  that  he 
desires  to  join  the  rebels.  He  takes  part  with  Ollanta 
and  his  men  in  a  drunken  frolic,  in  which  he  incites 
them  to  drink  heavily,  and  when  they  are  overcome 
with  liquor  he  brings  up  his  troops  and  makes  them 
prisoners. 

Mother  and  Child 

Yma  Sumac,  the  beautiful  little  daughter  of  Curi- 
Coyllur,  requests  her  guardian,  Pitu  Salla,  so  pitifully 
to  be  allowed  to  visit  her  mother  in  her  dungeon  that 
the  woman  consents,  and  mother  and  child  are  united. 
Ollanta  is  brought  as  a  prisoner  before  the  new  Inca, 
who  pardons  him.  At  that  juncture  Yma  Sumac  enters 
hurriedly,  and  begs  the  monarch  to  free  her  mother, 
Curi-Coyllur.  The  Inca  proceeds  to  the  prison,  restores 
the  princess  to  her  lover,  and  the  drama  concludes  with 
the  Inca  bestowing  his  blessing  upon  the  pair. 

The  play  was  first  put  into  written  form  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  has  often  been  printed,  and  is 
now  recognised  as  a  genuine  aboriginal  production. 

The  Races  of  Peru 

Many  races  went  to  make  up  the  Peruvian  people 
as  they  existed  when  first  discovered  by  the  conquering 
Spaniards.  From  the  south  came  a  civilising  race  which 
probably  found  a  number  of  allied  tribes,  each  existing 
separately  in  its  own  little  valley,  speaking  a  different 
dialect,  or  even  language,  from  its  neighbours,  and  in 
many  instances  employing  different  customs.  Although 
tradition  alleged  that  these  invaders  came  from  the 
north  by  sea  within  historical  times,  the  more  probable 
theory  of  their  origin  is  one  which  states  that  they  had 
followed  the  course  of  the  affluents  of  the  Amazon  to 
the  valleys  where  they  dwelt  when  the  more  enlightened 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
folk  from  the  south  came  upon  them.  The  remains  of 
this  aboriginal  people — for,  though  they  spoke  diverse 
languages,  the  probability  is  that  they  were  of  one  or 
not  more  than  two  stocks — are  still  found  scattered 
over  the  coastal  valleys  in  pyramidal  mounds  and 
adobe-built  dwellings. 

The  Coming  of  the  Incas 

The  arrival  of  the  dominant  race  rudely  broke  in 
upon  the  peaceful  existence  of  the  aboriginal  folk. 
This  race,  the  Quichua-Aymara,  probably  had  its  place 
of  origin  in  the  Altaplanicie  highlands  of  Bolivia,  the 
eastern  cordillera  of  the  Andes.  This  they  designated 
Tucuman  (World's  End),  just  as  the  Kiche  of  Guate- 
mala were  wont  to  describe  the  land  of  their  origin  as 
Ki  Pixab  (Corner  of  the  Earth).  The  present  republic 
of  Argentina  was  at  a  remott  period  covered  by  a  vast, 
partially  land-locked  sea,  and  beside  the  shores  of  this 
the  ancestors  of  the  Quichua-Aymara  race  may  have 
settled  as  fishers  and  fowlers.  They  found  a  more 
permanent  settlement  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca, 
where  their  traditions  state  that  they  made  considerable 
advances  in  the  arts  of  civilisation.  It  was,  indeed, 
from  Titicaca  that  the  sun  emerged  from  the  sacred 
rock  where  he  had  erstwhile  hidden  himself.  Here, 
too,  the  llama  and  paco  were  domesticated  and  agricul- 
tural life  initiated,  or  perfected.  The  arts  of  irrigation 
and  terrace-building — so  marked  as  features  of  Peruvian 
civilisation — were  also  invented  in  this  region,  and  the 
basis  of  a  composite  advancement  laid. 

The  Quichua'Aymara 

This  people  consisted  of  two  groups,  the  Quichua 
and  Aymara,  so  called  from  the  two  kindred  tongues 
spoken  by  each  respectively.  These  possess  a  common 
'5* 


o   I 


5  1 

H    | 


THE  COMING  OF  MANCO  CCAPAC 
grammatical  structure,  and  a  great  number  of  words  are 
common  to  both.  They  are  in  reality  varying  forms 
of  one  speech.  From  the  valley  of  Titicaca  the 
Aymara  spread  from  the  source  of  the  Amazon  river  to 
the  higher  parts  of  the  Andes  range,  so  that  in  course 
of  time  they  exhibited  those  qualities  which  stamp  the 
mountaineer  in  every  age  and  clime.  The  Quichua,  on 
the  other  hand,  occupied  the  warm  valleys  beyond  the 
river  Apurimac,  to  the  north-west  of  the  Aymara-speak- 
ing  people — a  tract  equal  to  the  central  portion  of  the 
modern  republic  of  Peru.  The  name  "  Quichua  "  im- 
plies a  warm  valley  or  sphere,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  "  Yunca,"  or  tropical  districts  of  the  coast  and  low- 
lands. 

The  Four  Peoples 

The  metropolitan  folk  or  Cuzco  considered  Peru  to 
be  divided  into  four  sections — that  of  the  Colla-suyu, 
with  the  valley  of  Titicaca  as  its  centre,  and  stretching 
from  the  Bolivian  highlands  to  Cuzco  ;  the  Conti-suyu, 
between  the  Colla-suyu  and  the  ocean  ;  the  Quichua 
Chinchay-suyu,  of  the  north-west  ;  and  the  Anti-suyu, 
of  the  montana  region.  The  Inca  people,  coming  sud- 
denly into  these  lands,  annexed  them  with  surprising 
rapidity,  and,  making  the  aboriginal  tribes  dependent 
upon  their  rule,  spread  themselves  over  the  face  of 
the  country.  Thus  the  ancient  chroniclers.  But  it 
is  obvious  that  such  rapid  conquest  was  a  practical 
impossibility,  and  it  is  now  understood  that  the  Inca 
power  was  consolidated  only  some  hundred  years  before 
the  coming  of  Pizarro. 

The  Coming  of  Manco  Ccapac 

Peruvian  myth  has  its  Quetzalcoatl  in  Manco  Ccapac, 
a  veritable  son  of  the  sun.  The  Life-giver,  observing 

255 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

the  deplorable  condition  of  mankind,  who  seemed  to 
exist  for  war  and  feasting  alone,  despatched  his  son, 
Manco  Ccapac,  and  his  sister-wife,  Mama  Oullo  Huaca, 
to  earth  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  the  degraded 
peoples  in  the  arts  of  civilised  life.  The  heavenly  pair 
came  to  earth  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Titicaca, 
and  were  provided  with  a  golden  wedge  which  they  were 
assured  would  sink  into  the  earth  at  the  precise  spot  on 
which  they  should  commence  their  missionary  labours. 
This  phenomenon  occurred  at  Cuzco,  where  the  wedge 
disappeared.  The  derivation  of  the  name  Cuzco, 
which  means  "  Navel,"  or,  in  more  modern  terms, "  Hub 
of  the  Universe,"  proves  that  it  was  regarded  as  a  great 
culture-centre.  On  this  spot  the  civilising  agents  pitched 
their  camp,  gathering  the  uncultured  folk  of  the  country 
around  them.  Whilst  Manco  taught  the  men  the  arts 
of  agriculture,  'Mama  Oullo  instructed  the  women  in 
those  of  weaving  and  spinning.  Great  numbers  gathered 
in  the  vicinity  of  Cuzco,  and  the  foundations  of  a  city 
were  laid.  Under  the  mild  rule  of  the  heavenly  pair 
the  land  of  Peru  abounded  in  every  desirable  thing,  like 
the  Eden  of  Genesis.  The  legend  of  Manco  Ccapac 
as  we  have  it  from  an  old  Spanish  source  is  worth  giving. 
It  is  as  follows  :  "  There  [in  Tiahuanaco]  the  creator 
began  to  raise  up  the  people  and  nations  that  are  in  that 
region,  making  one  of  each  nation  in  clay,  and  painting 
the  dresses  that  each  one  was  to  wear ;  those  that  were 
to  wear  their  hair,  with  hair,  and  those  that  were  to  be 
shorn,  with  hair  cut.  And  to  each  nation  was  given 
the  language  that  was  to  be  spoken,  and  the  songs  to 
be  sung,  and  the 'seeds  and  food  that  they  were  to  sow. 
When  the  creator  had  finished  painting  and  making  the 
said  nations  and  figures  of  clay,  he  gave  life  and  soul  to 
each  one,  as  well  man  as  woman,  and  ordered  that  they 
should  pass  under  the  earth.  Thence  each  nation  came 
156 


THE  PERUVIAN  CREATION^STCRY 

up  in  the  places  to  which  he  ordered  them  to  go.  Thus 
they  say  that  some  came  out  of  caves,  others  issued  from 
hills,  others  from  fountains,  others  from  the  trunks  of 
trees.  From  this  cause  and  others,  and  owing  to  having 
come  forth  and  multiplied  from  those  places,  and  to 
having  had  the  beginning  of  their  lineage  in  them,  they 
made  huacas1  and  places  of  worship  of  them,  in  memory 
of  the  origin  of  their  lineage.  Thus  each  nation  uses 
the  dress  with  which  thtry  invest  their  huaca ;  and  they 
say  that  the  first  that  was  born  in  that  place  was  there 
turned  into  stone.  Others  say  that  they  were  turned 
into  falcons,  condors,  and  other  animals  and  birds. 
Hence  the  huacas  they  use  are  in  different  shapes." 

The  Peruvian  Creation'Story 

The  Incan  Peruvians  believed  that  all  things  emanated 
from  Pachacamac,  the  all-pervading  spirit,  who  provided 
the  plants  and  animals  (which  they  believed  to  be  pro- 
duced  from  the  earth)  with  "souls."  The  earth  itself 
they  designated  Pachacamama  (Earth-Mother).  Here 
we  observe  that  Pachacamac  was  more  the  maker  and 
moulder  than  the  originator  of  matter,  a  view  common 
to  many  American  mythologies.  Pachacamac  it  was 
who  breathed  the  breath  of  life  into  man,  but  the 
Peruvian  conception  of  him  was  only  evolved  in  later 
Inca  times,  and  by  no  means  existed  in  the  early  days 
of  Inca  rule,  although  he  was  probably  worshipped 
before  this  under  another  and  less  exalted  shape.  The 
mere  exercise  of  will  or  thought  was  sufficient,  according 
to  the  Peruvians,  to  accomplish  the  creative  act.  In 
the  prayers  to  the  creator,  and  in  other  portions  of 
Inca  rite,  we  read  such  expressions  as  "Let  a  man  be," 
"Let  a  woman  be,"  and  "The  creative  word,"  which  eo 
to  prove  that  the  Peruvian  consciousness  had  fully 
1  Sacred  things. 

ft  257 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

grasped  the  idea  of  a  creator  capable  of  evolving  matter 
out  of  nothingness.  Occasionally  we  find  the  sun  acting 
as  a  kind  of  demiurge  or  sub-creator.  He  it  is  who 
in  later  legend  founds  the  city  of  Cuzco,  and  sends 
thither  three  eggs  composed  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
from  which  spring  the  three  classes  of  Peruvians,  kings, 
priests,  and  slaves.  The  inevitable  deluge  occurs,  after 
which  we  find  the  prehistoric  town  of  Tiahuanaco  re- 
garded as  the  theatre  of  a  new  creation  of  man.  Here 
the  creator  made  man,  and  separated  him  into  nations, 
making  one  of  each  nation  out  of  the  clay  of  the  earth, 
painting  the  dresses  that  each  was  to  wear,  and  endow- 
ing them  with  national  songs,  languages,  seeds  to  sow 
suitable  to  the  environment  of  each,  and  food  such  as 
they  would  require.  Then  he  gave  the  peoples  life  and 
soul,  and  commanded  them  to  enter  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  whence  they  came  upward  in  the  places  where  he 
ordered  them  to  go.  Perhaps  this  is  one  of  the  most 
complete  ("  wholesale  "  would  be  a  better  word)  creation- 
myths  in  existence,  and  we  can  glean  from  its  very 
completeness  that  it  is  by  no  means  of  simple  origin, 
but  of  great  complexity.  It  is  obviously  an  attempt  to 
harmonise  several  conflicting  creation-stories,  notably 
those  in  which  the  people  are  spoken  of  as  emanating 
from  caves,  and  the  later  one  of  the  creation  of  men  at 
Tiahuanaco,  probably  suggested  to  the  Incas  by  the 
immense  ruins  at  that  place,  for  which  they  could  not 
otherwise  account. 

Local  Creation'Myths 

In  some  of  the  more  isolated  valleys  of  Peru  we 
discover  local  creation-myths.  For  example,  in  the 
coastal  valley  of  Irma  Pachacamac  was  not  considered 
to  be  the  creator  of  the  sun,  but  to  be  himself  a 
descendant  of  it.  The  first  human  beings  created  by 
258 


Making  one  of  each  nation  out  of  the  clay  of  the  earth  ' ' 

William  Sewell  258 


AN  ABSOLUTE  THEOCRACY 
him  were  speedily  separated,  as  the  man  died  of  hunger, 
but  the  woman  supported  herself  by  living  on  roots. 
The  sun  took  compassion  upon  her  and  gave  her  a  son 
whom  Pachacamac  slew  and  buried.     But  from  his  teeth 
there  grew  maize,  from  his  ribs  the  long  white  roots  of  the 
manioc  plant,  and  from  his  flesh  various  esculent  plants. 

The  Character  of  Inca  Civilisation 

Apart  from  the  treatment  which  they  meted  out  to 
the  subject  races  under  their  sway,  the  rule  of  the  Inca 
monarchs  was  enlightened  and  contained  the  elements 
of  high  civilisation.  It  is  scarcely  clear  whether  the 
Inca  race  arrived  in  the  country  at  such  a  date  as  would 
have  permitted  them  to  profit  by  adopting  the  arts 
and  sciences  of  the  Andean  people  who  preceded  them. 
But  it  may  be  affirmed  that  their  arrival  considerably 
post-dated  the  fall  of  the  megalithic  empire  of  the 
Andeans,  so  that  in  reality  their  civilisation  was  of  their 
own  manufacture.  As  architects  they  were  by  no 
means  the  inferiors  of  the  prehistoric  race,  if  the 
examples  of  their  art  did  not  bulk  so  massively,  and 
the  engineering  skill  with  which  they  pushed  long, 
straight  tunnels  through  vast  mountains  and  bridged 
seemingly  impassable  gorges  still  excites  the  wonder  ot 
modern  experts.  They  also  made  long,  straight  roads 
after  the  most  improved  macadamised  model.  Their 
temples  and  palaces  were  adorned  with  gold  and  silver 
images  and  ornaments  ;  sumptuous  baths  supplied  with 
hot  and  cold  water  by  means  of  pipes  laid  in  the  earth 
were  to  be  found  in  the  mansions  of  the  nobility,  and 
much  luxury  and  real  comfort  prevailed. 

An  Absolute  Theocracy 

The  empire  of  Peru  was  the  most  absolute  theocrac) 
the  world  has  ever  seen.  The  Inca  was  the  direct 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
representative  of  the  sun  upon  earth,  the  head  of  a 
socio-religious  edifice  intricate  and  highly  organised. 
This  colossal  bureaucracy  had  ramifications  into  the 
very  homes  of  the  people.  The  Inca  was  represented 
in  the  provinces  by  governors  of  the  blood-royal. 
Officials  were  placed  above  ten  thousand  families,  a 
thousand  families,  and  even  ten  families,  upon  the 
principle  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  enter  everywhere,  and 
that  therefore  the  light  of  the  Inca  must  penetrate  to 
every  corner  of  the  empire.  There  was  no  such  thing 
as  personal  freedom.  Every  man,  woman,  and  child 
was  numbered,  branded,  and  under  surveillance  as  much 
as  were  the  llamas  in  the  royal  herds.  Individual  effort 
or  enterprise  was  unheard  of.  Some  writers  have 
stated  that  a  system  of  state  socialism  obtained  in  Peru. 
If  so,  then  state  surveillance  in  Central  Russia  might 
also  be  branded  as  socialism.  A  man's  life  was  planned 
for  him  by  the  authorities  from  the  age  of  five  years, 
and  even  the  woman  whom  he  was  to  marry  was 
selected  for  him  by  the  Government  officials.  The 
age  at  which  the  people  should  marry  was  fixed  at  not 
earlier  than  twenty-four  years  for  a  man  and  eighteen 
for  a  woman.  Coloured  ribbons  worn  round  the  head 
indicated  the  place  of  a  person's  birth  or  the  province 
to  which  he  belonged. 

A  Golden  Temple 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  the 
Peruvian  civilisation  was  the  Coricancha  (Town  of 
Gold)  at  Cuzco,  the  principal  fane  of  the  sun-god. 
Its  inner  and  outer  walls  were  covered  with  plates  of 
pure  gold.  Situated  upon  an  eminence  eighty  feet 
high,  the  temple  looked  down  upon  gardens  filled, 
according  to  the  conquering  Spaniards,  with  treasures  of 
gold  and  silver.  The  animals,  insects,  th«  very  trees, 
260 


PLANETARY  TEMPLES 

say  the  chroniclers,  were  of  the  preciou*  metals,  as 
were  the  spades,  hoes,  and  other  implements  employed 
for  keeping  the  ground  in  cultivation.  Through  the 
pleasances  rippled  the  river  Huatenay.  Such  was  the 
glittering  Intipampa  (Field  of  the  Sun).  That  the  story 
is  true,  at  least  in  part,  is  proved  by  the  traveller  Squier, 
who  speaks  of  having  seen  in  several  houses  in  Cuzco 
sheets  of  gold  preserved  as  relics  which  came  from 
the  Temple  of  the  Sun.  These,  he  says,  were  scarcely 
as  thick  as  paper,  and  were  stripped  off  the  walls  of  the 
Coricancha  by  the  exultant  Spanish  soldiery. 

The  Great  Altar 

But  this  house  of  gold  had  but  *  roof  of  thatch  ! 
The  Peruvians  were  ignorant  of  the  principle  of  the 
arch,  or  else  considered  the  feature  unsuitable,  for  some 
reason  best  known  to  their  architects.  The  doorways 
were  formed  of  huge  monoliths,  and  the  entire  aspect  of 
the  building  was  Cyclopean.  The  interior  displayed  an 
ornate  richness  which  impressed  even  the  Spaniards, 
who  had  seen  the  wealth  of  many  lands  and  Oriental 
kingdoms,  and  the  gold-lust  must  have  swelled  within 
their  hearts  at  sight  of  the  great  altar,  behind  which 
was  a  huge  plate  of  the  shining  metal  engraved  with 
the  features  of  the  sun-god.  The  surface  of  this  plate 
was  enriched  by  a  thousand  gems,  the  scintillation  of 
which  was,  according  to  eye-witnesses,  almost  insup- 
portable. Around  this  dazzling  sphere  were  seated 
the  mummified  corpses  of  the  Inca  kings,  each  on  his 
throne,  with  sceptre  in  hand. 

Planetary  Temples 

Surrounding  the  Coricancha  several  lesser  temples 
clustered,  all  of  them  dedicated  to  one  or  other  of 
the  planetary  bodies — to  the  moon,  to  Cuycha,  the 

tfi 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
rainbow,  to  Chasca,  the  planet  Venus.  In  the  temple 
of  the  moon,  the  mythic  mother  of  the  Inca  dynasty,  a 
great  plate  of  silver,  like  the  golden  one  which  repre- 
sented the  face  of  the  sun-god,  depicted  the  features 
of  the  moon-goddess,  and  around  this  the  mummies 
of  the  Inca  queens  sat  in  a  semicircle,  like  their 
spouses  in  the  greater  neighbouring  fane.  In  the 
rainbow  temple  of  Cuycha  the  seven-hued  arch  of 
heaven  was  depicted  by  a  great  arc  of  gold  skilfully 
tempered  or  painted  in  suitable  colours.  All  the 
utensils  in  these  temples  were  of  gold  or  silver.  In 
the  principal  building  twelve  large  jars  of  silver  held 
the  sacred  grain,  and  even  the  pipes  which  conducted  the 
water-supply  through  the  earth  to  the  sanctuary  were 
of  silver.  Pedro  Pizarro  himself,  besides  other  credible 
eye-witnesses,  vouched  for  these  facts.  The  colossal 
representation  of  the  sun  became  the  property  of  a  cer- 
tain Mancio  Serra  de  Leguicano,  a  reckless  cavalier  and 
noted  gambler,  who  lost  it  on  a  single  throw  of  the 
dice  !  Such  was  the  spirit  of  the  adventurers  who  con- 
quered this  golden  realm  for  the  crown  of  Spain.  The 
walls  of  the  Coricancha  are  still  standing,  and  this 
marvellous  shrine  of  the  chief  luminary  of  heaven,  the 
great  god  of  the  Peruvians,  is  now  a  Christian  church. 

The  Mummies  of  Peru 

The  fact  that  the  ancient  Peruvians  had  a  method 
of  mummification  has  tempted  many  "  antiquarians " 
to  infer  therefrom  that  they  had  some  connection  with 
ancient  Egypt.  These  theories  are  so  numerous  as  to 
give  the  unsophisticated  reader  the  idea  that  a  regular 
system  of  immigration  was  carried  on  between  Egypt 
and  America.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  method  of 
mummification  in  vogue  in  Peru  was  entirely  diffe- 
rent from  that  employed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
262 


THE  MUMMIES  OF  PERU 

Peruvian  mummies  are  met  with  at  apparently  all 
stages  of  the  history  of  the  native  races.  Megalithic 
tombs  and  monuments  contain  them  in  the  doubled- 
up  posture  so  common  among  early  peoples  all  over 
the  world.  These  megalithic  tombs,  or  chulpas,  as 
they  are  termed,  are  composed  of  a  mass  of  rough 
stones  and  clay,  faced  with  huge  blocks  of  trachyte 
or  basalt,  so  put  together  as  to  form  a  cist,  in  which 
the  mummy  was  placed.  The  door  invariably  faces 
the  east,  so  that  it  may  catch  the  gleams  of  the 
rising  sun — a  proof  of  the  prevalence  of  sun-worship. 
Squier  alludes  to  one  more  than  24  feet  high.  An 
opening  18  inches  square  gave  access  to  the  sepulchral 
chamber,  which  was  11  feet  square  by  13  feet  high. 
But  the  tomb  had  been  entered  before,  and  after  getting 
in  with .  much  difficulty  thr  explorer  was  forced  to 
retreat  empty-handed. 

Many  of  these  chulpas  are  circular,  and  painted  in 
gay  primary  colours.  They  are  very  numerous  in 
Bolivia,  an  old  Peruvian  province,  and  in  the  basin  of 
Lake  Titicaca  they  abound.  The  dead  were  wrapped 
in  llama-skins,  on  which  the  outlines  of  the  eyes  and 
mouth  were  carefully  marked.  The  corpse  was  then 
arrayed  in  other  garments,  and  the  door  of  the  tomb 
walled  up.  In  some  parts  of  Peru  the  dead  were 
mummified  and  placed  in  the  dwelling-houses  beside 
the  living.  In  the  rarefied  air  of  the  plateaus  the 
bodies  rapidly  became  innocuous,  and  the  custom  was 
not  the  insanitary  one  we  might  imagine  it  to  be. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  method  of  mummification 
was  somewhat  different.  The  body  was  reduced  to  a 
complete  state  of  desiccation,  and  was  deposited  in 
a,  tomb  constructed  of  stone  or  adobe.  Vases  intended 
to  hold  maize  or  chicha  liquor  were  placed  beside  the 
corpse,  and  copper  hatchets,  mirrors  of  polished  stone, 

263 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

earrings,  and  bracelets  have  been  discovered  in  these 
burial-places.  Some  of  the  remains  are  wrapped  in 
rich  cloth,  and  vases  of  gold  and  silver  were  placed 
beside  them.  Golden  plaques  are  often  discovered  in 
the  mouths,  probably  symbolic  of  the  sun.  The  bodies 
exhibit  no  traces  of  embalming,  and  are  usually  in  a 
sitting  posture.  Some  of  them  have  evidently  been 
dried  before  inhumation,  whilst  others  are  covered  with 
a  resinous  substance.  They  are  generally  accompanied 
by  the  various  articles  used  during  life ;  the  men  have 
their  weapons  and  ornaments,  women  their  household 
implements,  and  children  their  toys.  The  dryness  of 
the  climate,  as  in  Egypt,  keeps  these  relics  in  a  won- 
derful state  of  preservation.  In  the  grave  of  a  woman 
were  found  not  only  vases  of  every  shape,  but  also  some 
cloth  she  had  commenced  to  weave,  which  her  death 
had  perhaps  prevented  her  from  completing.  Her  light 
brown  hair  was  carefully  combed  and  plaited,  and  the 
legs  from  the  ankle  to  the  knee  were  painted  red, 
after  the  fashion  in  vogue  among  Peruvian  beauties, 
while  little  bladders  of  toilet-powder  and  gums  were 
thoughtfully  placed  beside  her  for  her  use  in  the  life 
to  come. 

Laws  and  Customs 

The  legal  code  of  the  Incas  was  severe  in  the  ex- 
treme. Murderers  and  adulterers  were  punished  by 
death,  and  the  unpardonable  sin  appears  to  have  been 
blasphemy  against  the  sun,  or  his  earthly  representa- 
tive, the  Inca.  The  Virgin  of  the  Sun  (or  nun)  who 
broke  her  vow  was  buried  alive,  and  the  village  from 
whence  she  came  was  razed  to  the  ground.  Flogging 
was  administered  for  minor  offences.  A  peculiar  and 
very  trying  punishment  must  have  been  that  of  carrying 
a  heavy  stone  for  a  certain  time. 


THE  PERUVIAN  CALENDAR 
On  marriage  a  home  was  apportioned  to  each  couple, 
and  land  assigned  to  them  sufficient  for  their  support. 
When  a  child  was  born  a  separate  allowance  was  given 
it — one  fanega  for  a  boy,  and   half  that  amount  for 
a  girl,  thefanega  being  equal  to  the  area  which  could 
be  sown  with  a  hundred  pounds  of  maize.     There  is 
something  repulsive  in  the  Inca  code,  with  its  grand- 
motherly legislation  ;  and  if  this  tyranny  was  beneficent, 
it  was  devised  merely  to  serve  its  own  ends  and  hound 
on  the  unhappy  people  under  its  control  like  dumb, 
driven  cattle.     The  outlook  of  the  average  native  was 
limited  in  the  extreme.     The  Inca  class  of  priests  and 
warriors  retained  every  vestige  of  authority  ;  and  that  ' 
they  employed  their  power  unmercifully  to  grind  down  > 
the   millions    beneath    them    was   a   sufficient   excuse3 
for  the  Spanish  Conquistadores  in  dispossessing  them 
of  the  empire  they  had  so  harshly  administered. 

The  public  ground  was  divided  afresh  every  year 
according  to  the  number  of  the  members  of  each 
family,  and  agrarian  laws  were  strictly  fixed.  Private 
property  did  not  exist  among  the  people  of  the  lower 
classes,  who  merely  farmed  the  lot  which  each  year 
was  placed  at  their  disposal.  Besides  this,  the  people 
had  perforce  to  cultivate  the  lands  sacred  to  the  Inca, 
and  only  the  aged  and  the  sick  could  evade  this  duty. 

The  Peruvian  Calendar 

The  standard  chronology  known  to  the  Peru  of  the 
Incas  was  a  simple  lunar  reckoning.  But  the  four 
principal  points  in  the  sun's  course  were  denoted  by 
means  of  the  intihuatana^  a  device  consisting  of  a  large 
rock  surmounted  by  a  small  cone,  the  shadow  of  which, 
falling  on  certain  notches  on  the  stone  below,  marked 
the  date  of  the  great  sun-festivals.  The  Peruvians, 
however,  had  no  definite  calendar.  At  Cuzco,  the 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

capital,   the   solstices   were   gauged   by   pillars    called 

pachacta  unanchac,  or  indicators  of  time,   which   were 

placed   in   four  groups   (two   pillars   to   a  group)  on 

promontories,  two  in  the  direction  of  sunrise  and  two 

in  that  of  sunset,  to  mark  the  extreme  points  of  the 

sun's   rising   and   setting.     By  this   means  they  were 

enabled  to  distinguish  the  arrival  and  departure  of  the 

solstices,   during  which  the   sun   never  went  beyond 

the  middle    pair   of  pillars.     The    Inca   astronomer's 

approximation  to  the  year  was  360  days,  which  were 

divided  into  twelve  moons  of  thirty  days  each.     These 

i  moons  were  not  calendar  months  in  the  correct  sense, 

(but  simply  a  succession  of  lunations,  which  commenced 

dwith  the  winter  solstice.     This    method,  which   must 

v ultimately  have  proved  confusing,  does  not  seem    to 

f  have  been  altered  to  co-ordinate  with  the  reckoning  of 

)  the  succession   of  years.     The    names  of   the    twelve 

moons,  which  had  some  reference  to  the  daily  life  of 

the  Peruvian,  were  as  follows  : 

Huchuy  Pucuy   Quilla   (Small   Growing   Moon),   approximately 
January. 

Hatun   Pucuy  Quilla   (Great   Growing    Moon),   approximately 
February. 

Pancar   Pucujr   Quilla   (Flower-growing    Moon),    approximately 
March. 

Ayrihua  Quilla  (Twin  Ears  Moon),  approximately  April. 

Aymuray  Quilla  (Harvest  Moon),  approximately  May. 

Auray  Cusqui  Quilla  (Breaking  Soil),  approximately  June. 

Chahua  Huarqui  Quilla  (Irrigation  Moon),  approximately  July. 

Tarpuy  Quilla  (Sowing  Moon),  approximately  August. 

Ccoya  Raymi  Quilla  (Moon  of  the  Moon  Feast),  approximately 
September. 

Uma  Raymi  Quilla  (Moon  of  the  Feast  of  the  Province  of  Uma), 
approximately  October. 

Ayamarca  Raymi  Quilla  (Moon  of  the  Feast  of  the  Province  of 
Ayamarca),  approximately  November. 

Ccapac  Raymi  Quilla  (Moou  of  the  Great  Ftast   of  tho    Sun\ 
approximately  December. 
266 


THE  FESTIVALS 

The  Festivals 

That  the  Peruvian  standard  of  time,  as  with  all 
American  people,  was  taken  from  the  natural  course 
of  the  moon  is  known  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  the 
principal  religious  festivals  began  on  the  new  moon 
Following  a  solstice  or  equinox.  The  ceremonies  con- 
nected with  the  greatest  festival,  the  Ccapac  Raymi, 
were  made  to  date  near  the  lunar  phases,  the  two 
stages  commencing  with  the  ninth  day  of  the  December 
moon  and  twenty-first  day,  or  last  quarter.  But  while 
these  lunar  phases  indicated  certain  festivals,  it  very 
often  happened  that  the  civil  authorities  followed  a 
reckoning  of  their  own,  in  preference  to  accepting 
ecclesiastical  rule.  Considerable  significance  was 
attached  to  each  month  by  the  Peruvians  regarding 
the  nature  of  their  festivals.  The  solstices  and  equi- 
noxes were  the  occasions  of  established  ceremonies. 
The  arrival  of  the  winter  solstice,  which  in  Peru  occurs 
in  June,  was  celebrated  by  the  Intip  Raymi  (Great 
Feast  of  the  Sun).  The  principal  Peruvian  feast, 
which  took  place  at  the  summer  solstice,  when  the 
new  year  was  supposed  to  begin,  was  the  national  feast 
of  the  great  god  Pachacamac,  and  was  called  Ccapac 
Raymi.  Molina,  Fernandez,  and  Garcilasso,  however, 
date  the  new  year  from  the  winter  solstice.  The  third 
festival  of  the  Inca  year,  the  Ccapac  Situa,  or  Ccoya 
Raymi  (Moon  Feast),  which  is  signalled  by  the  begin- 
ning of  the  rainy  season,  occurred  in  September.  In 
general  character  these  festivals  appear  to  have  been 
simple,  and  even  childlike.  The  sacrifice  of  animals 
taken  from  sacred  herds  of  llamas  was  doubtless  a 
principal  feature  of  the  ceremony,  accompanied  by  the 
offering  up  of  maguey,  or  maize  spirit,  and  followed  by 
the  performance  of  symbolic  dances. 

267 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  Llama 

The  llama  was  the  chief  domestic  animal  of  Peru. 
All  llamas  were  the  property  of  the  Inca.  Like  the 
camel,  its  distant  relative,  this  creature  can  subsist  for 
long  periods  upon  little  nourishment,  and  it  is  suitable 
for  the  carriage  of  moderate  loads.  Each  year  a  certain 
imount  of  llama  wool  was  given  to  the  Peruvian  family, 
according  to  the  number  of  women  it  contained,  and 
these  wove  it  into  garments,  whatever  was  over  being 
stored  away  in  the  public  cloth-magazines  for  the 
general  use.  The  large  flocks  of  llamas  and  alpacas 
also  afforded  a  supply  of  meat  for  the  people  such  as 
the  Mexicans  never  possessed.  Naturally  much  atten- 
tion was  given  to  the  breeding  of  these  animals,  and  the 
alpaca  was  as  carefully  regarded  by  the  Peruvian  as  the 
sheep  by  the  farmer  of  to-day.  The  guanacos  and 
vicunas,  wild  animals  of  the  llama  or  auchenia  family, 

were  also  sources  of  food-  and  wool-supply. 

• 

Architecture  of  the  Incas 

The  art  in  which  the  Incan  Peruvians  displayed  the 
greatest  advance  was  that  of  architecture.  The  earlier 
style  of  Inca  building  shows  that  it  was  closely 
modelled,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out,  on  that  of 
the  megalithic  masons  of  the  Tiahuanaco  district,  but 
the  later  style  shows  stones  laid  in  regular  courses, 
varying  in  length.  No  cement  or  mortar  of  any  kind 
was  employed,  the  structure  depending  for  stability 
upon  the  accuracy  with  which  the  stones  were  fitted  to 
each  other.  An  enormous  amount  of  labour  must 
have  been  expended  upon  this  part  of  the  work,  for  in 
the  monuments  of  Peruvian  architecture  which  still 
exist  it  is  impossible  to  insert  even  a  needle  between 
the  stones  of  which  they  are  composed.  The  palaces 
268 


UNSURPASSED  WORKMANSHIP 

and  temples  were  built  around  a  courtyard,  and  most 
of  the  principal  buildings  had  a  hall  of  considerable 
dimensions  attached  to  them,  which,  like  the  baronial 
halls  of  the  England  of  the  Middle  Ages,  served  for 
feasting  or  ceremony.  In  this  style  is  built  the  front 
of  the  palace  on  the  Colcampata,  overlooking  the  city 
of  Cuzco,  under  the  fortress  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  dwelling  of  Manco  Ccapac,  the  first 
Inca.  Palaces  at  Yucay  and  Chinchero  are  also  of  this 

type- 
Unsurpassed  "Workmanship 

In  an  illuminating  passage  upon  Inca  architecture 
Sir  Clements  Markham,  the  greatest  living  authority 
upon  matters  Peruvian,  says  : 

"  In  Cuzco  the  stone  used  is  a  dark  trachyte,  and 
the  coarse  grain  secured  greater  adhesion  between  the 
blocks.  The  workmanship  is  unsurpassed,  and  the 
world  has  nothing  to  show  in  the  way  of  stone-cutting 
and  fitting  to  equal  the  skill  and  accuracy  displayed  in 
the  Ynca  structures  of  Cuzco.  No  cement  is  used, 
and  the  larger  stones  are  in  the  lowest  row,  each 
ascending  course  being  narrower,  which  presents  a 
most  pleasing  effect.  The  edifices  were  built  round 
a  court,  upon  which  the  rooms  opened,  and  some  of 
the  great  halls  were  200  paces  long  by  60  wide,  the 
height  being  35  to  40  feet,  besides  the  spring  of  the 
roof.  The  roofs  were  thatch  ;  and  we  are  able  to 
form  an  idea  of  their  construction  from  one,  which 
is  still  preserved,  after  a  lapse  of  three  centuries.  This 
is  on  a  circular  building  called  the  Sondor-huasi,  at 
Azangaro,  and  it  shows  that  even  thatch  in  the  hands 
of  tasteful  builders  will  make  a  sightly  roof  for  im- 
posing edifices,  and  that  the  interior  ornament  of  such 
a  roof  may  be  exceedingly  beautiful." 

169 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  Temple  of  Viracocha 

The  temple  of  Viracocha,  at  Cacha,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Vilcamayu,  is  built  on  a  plan  different  from  that 
of  any  other  sacred  building  in  Peru.  Its  ruins  consist 
of  a  wall  of  adobe  or  clay  40  feet  high  and  330  long, 
built  on  stone  foundations  8  feet  in  height.  The  roof 
was  supported  on  twenty-five  columns,  and  the  width 
of  the  structure  was  87  feet.  It  was  a  place  of 
pilgrimage,  and  the  caravanserais  where  the  Faithful  were 
wont  to  be  housed  still  stand  around  the  ruined  fane. 

Titicaca 

The  most  sacred  of  the  Peruvian  shrines,  however, 
was  Titicaca,  an  island  on  the  lake  of  that  name.  The 
island  of  Coati,  hard  by,  enjoyed  an  equal  reverence. 
Terraced  platforms  on  the  former,  reached  by  flights 
of  steps,  support  two  buildings  provided  for  the 
use  of  pilgrims  about  to  proceed  to  Coati.  On  Titicaca 
there  are  the  ruins  of  an  extensive  palace  which  com- 
mands a  splendid  view  of  the  surrounding  barren 
country.  A  great  bath  or  tank  is  situated  half-way 
down  a  long  range  of  terraces  supported  by  cut  stone 
masonry,  and  the  pool,  40  feet  long  by  10,  and  5  feet 
deep,  has  similar  walls  on  three  sides.  Below  this  tank 
the  water  is  made  to  irrigate  terrace  after  terrace  until 
it  falls  into  the  lake. 

Coati 

The  island  of  Coati  is  about  six  miles  distant.  The 
principal  building  is  on  one  of  the  loftiest  of  seven 
terraces,  once  radiant  with  flowers  and  shrubs,  and 
filled  with  rich  loam  transported  from  a  more  fertile 
region.  It  is  placed  on  three  sides  of  a  square,  1 83  feet 
long  bv  80,  and  is  of  stone  laid  in  clay  and  coated 
270 


THE  PALACE 

with  plaster.  "  It  has,"  says  Markham,  "  thirty-five 
chambers,  only  one  of  which  is  faced  with  hewn  stones. 
The  ornament  on  the  fa$ade  consists  of  elaborate  niches, 
which  agreeably  break  the  monotony  of  the  wall,  and 
above  them  runs  a  projecting  cornice.  The  walls  were 
painted  yellow,  and  the  niches  red  ;  and  there  was  a 
high-pitched  roof,  broken  here  and  there  by  gables. 
The  two  largest  chambers  are  20  long  by  12,  and 
loftier  than  the  rest,  each  with  a  great  niche  in  the  wall 
facing  the  entrance.  These  were  probably  the  holy 
places  or  shrines  of  the  temple.  The  beautiful  series 
of  terraces  falls  off  from  the  esplanade  of  the  temple  to 
the  shores  of  the  lake." 

Mysterious  Chimu 

The  coast  folk,  of  a  different  race  from  the  Incas, 
bad  their  centre  of  civilisation  near  the  city  of 
lYuxillo,  on  the  plain  of  Chimu.  Here  the  ruins  of  a 
great  city  litter  the  plain  for  many  acres.  Arising  from 
the  mass  of  ruin,  at  intervals  stand  huacas,  or  artificial 
hills.  The  city  was  supplied  with  water  by  means 
of  small  canals,  which  also  served  to  irrigate  the 
gardens.  The  mounds  alluded  to  were  used  for 
sepulture,  and  the  largest,  at  Moche,  is  800  feet 
long  by  470  feet  in  breadth,  and  200  feet  in  height. 
It  is  constructed  of  adobes.  Besides  serving  the  pur- 
pose of  a  cemetery,  this  mound  probably  supported  a 
Urge  temple  on  its  summit. 

The  Palace 

A  vast  palace  occupied  a  commanding  position.  Its 
great  hall  was  100  feet  long  by  52  broad,  and  its  walls 
were  covered  with  a  highly  ornate  series  of  arabesques 
in  relief  done  in  stucco,  like  the  fretwork  on  the  walls 
of  Palenque.  Another  hall  close  at  hand  is  ornamented 

271 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

in  coloured  stucco,  and  from  it  branch  off  many  small 
rooms,  which  were  evidently  dormitories.  From  the 
first  hall  a  long  corridor  leads  to  secret  storehouses, 
where  many  vessels  of  gold  and  silver  have  been  dis- 
covered hidden  away,  as  if  to  secure  them  either  from 
marauding  bands  or  the  gaze  of  the  vulgar.  All  of 
these  structures  are  hollowed  out  of  a  vast  mound 
covering  several  acres,  so  that  the  entire  building  may 
be  said  to  be  partially  subterranean  in  character. 
"  About  a  hundred  yards  to  the  westward  of  this 
palace  there  was  a  sepulchral  mound  where  many  relics 
were  discovered.  The  bodies  were  wrapped  in  cloths, 
woven  in  ornamental  figures  and  patterns  of  different 
colours.  On  some  of  the  cloths  were  sewn  plates  of 
silver,  and  they  were  edged  with  borders  of  feathers, 
the  silver  being  occasionally  cut  in  the  shape  of  fishes. 
Among  the  ruins  of  the  city  there  are  great  rectangular 
areas  enclosed  by  massive  walls,  and  containing  courts, 
streets,  dwellings,  and  reservoirs  for  water.  The 
largest  is  about  a  mile  south  of  the  mound-palace, 
and  is  550  yards  long  by  400.  The  outer  wall  is  about 
30  feet  high,  10  feet  thick  at  the  base,  with  sides 
inclining  toward  each  other.  Some  of  the  interior  walls 
are  highly  ornamented  in  stuccoed  patterns  ;  and  in  one 
part  there  is  an  edifice  containing  forty-five  chambers 
or  cells,  in  five  rows  of  nine  each,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  prison.  The  enclosure  also  contained  a 
reservoir  450  feet  long  by  195  broad,  and  60  feet  deep." 

The  Civilisation  of  Chimu 

The  ruins  of  Chimu  are  undoubtedly  the  outcome 
of  a  superior  standard  of  civilisation.  The  buildings 
are  elaborate,  as  are  their  internal  arrangements.  The 
extent  of  the  city  is  great,  and  the  art  displayed  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  utensils  discovered  within  it  and 


A  SINGULAR  DISCOVERY 

the  taste  evinced  in  the  numerous  wall-patterns  show 
that  a  people  of  advanced  culture  inhabited  it.  The 
jeweller's  work  is  in  high  relief,  and  the  pottery  and 
plaques  found  exhibit  much  artistic  excellence. 

Pachacamac 

The  famous  ruins  of  the  temple  and  city  of 
Pachacamac,  near  the  valley  of  Lurin,  to  the  south 
of  Lima,  overlook  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  a  height  of 
500  feet.  Four  vast  terraces  still  bear  mighty  per- 
pendicular walls,  at  one  time  painted  red.  Here  was 
found  the  only  perfect  Peruvian  arch,  built  of  large 
adobe  bricks — a  proof  that  the  Peruvian  mind  did  not 
stand  still  in  matters  architectural  at  least. 

Irrigation  Works 

It  was  in  works  of  irrigation,  however,  that  the 
race  exhibited  its  greatest  engineering  genius.  In  the 
valley  of  Nasca  the  Incas  cut  deep  trenches  to  reinforce 
the  irrigating  power  of  a  small  river,  and  carried  the 
system  high  up  into  the  mountains,  in  order  that  the 
rainfall  coming  therefrom  might  be  conducted  into  the 
needful  channel.  Lower  down  the  valley  the  main 
watercourse  is  deflected  into  many  branches,  which 
irrigate  each  estate  by  feeding  the  small  surface  streams. 
This  system  adequately  serves  the  fifteen  estates  of 
Nasca  to-day !  Another  high-level  canal  for  the  irri- 
gation of  pasture-lands  was  led  for  more  than  a 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
central  cordillera. 

A  Singular  Discovery 

In  Peru,  as  in  Mexico,  it  is  probable  that  the  cross 
was  employed  as  a  symbol  or  the  four  winds.  An 
account  of  the  expedition  of  Fuentes  to  the  valley  of 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Chichas  recounts  the  discovery  of  a  wooden  cross  as 
follows  :  * 

"  When  the  settlers  who  accompanied  Fuentes  in 
his  glorious  expedition  approached  the  valley  they 
found  a  wooden  cross,  hidden,  as  if  purposely,  in  the 
most  intricate  part  of  the  mountains.  As  there  is  not 
anything  more  flattering  to  the  vanity  of  a  credulous 
man  than  to  be  enabled  to  bring  forward  his  testimony 
in  the  relation  of  a  prodigy,  the  devotion  of  these  good 
conquerors  was  kindled  to  such  a  degree  by  the  dis- 
covery of  this  sacred  memorial  that  they  instantly 
hailed  it  as  miraculous  and  divine.  They  accordingly 
carried  it  in  procession  to  the  town,  and  placed  it  in 
the  church  belonging  to  the  convent  of  San  Francisco, 
where  it  is  still  worshipped.  It  appears  next  to  im- 
possible that  there  should  not,  at  that  time,  have  been 
any  individual  among  them  sufficiently  enlightened  to 
combat  such  a  persuasion,  since,  in  reality,  there  was 
nothing  miraculous  in  the  finding  of  this  cross,  there 
having  been  other  Christian  settlers,  before  the  arrival 
of  Fuentes,  in  the  same  valley.  The  opinion,  notwith- 
standing, that  the  discovery  was  altogether  miraculous, 
instead  of  having  been  abandoned  at  the  commence- 
ment, was  confirmed  still  more  and  more  with  the 
progress  of  time.  The  Jesuits  Antonio  Ruiz  and 
Pedro  Lozano,  in  their  respective  histories  of  the 
missions  of  Paraguay,  &c.,  undertook  to  demonstrate 
that  the  Apostle  St.  Thomas  had  been  in  America. 
This  thesis,  which  was  so  novel,  and  so  well  calculated 
to  draw  the  public  attention,  required,  more  than  any 
other,  the  aid  of  the  most  powerful  reasons,  and  of  the 
most  irrefragable  documents,  to  be  able  to  maintain 
itself,  even  in  an  hypothetical  sense  ;  but  nothing  of 
all  this  was  brought  forward.  Certain  miserable  con- 

1  Skinner's  State  of  Peru,  p.  313  (1805). 

274 


THE  CHIBCHAS 

jecturcs,  prepossession,  and  personal  interest,  supplied 
the  place  of  truth  and  criticism.  The  form  of  a  human 
foot,  which  they  fancied  they  saw  imprinted  on  the 
rock,  and  the  different  fables  of  this  description  in- 
vented by  ignorance  at  every  step,  were  the  sole 
foundations  on  which  all  the  relations  on  this  subject 
were  made  to  repose.  The  one  touching  the  pere- 
grinations of  St.  Thomas  from  Brazil  to  Quito  must 
be  deemed  apocryphal,  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
above  reverend  fathers  describe  the  Apostle  with  the 
staff  in  the  hand,  the  black  cassock  girt  about  the  waist, 
and  all  the  other  trappings  which  distinguish  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  society.  The  credit  which  these 
histories  obtained  at  the  commencement  was  equal 
to  that  bestowed  on  the  cross  of  Tarija,  which  re- 
mained in  the  predicament  of  being  the  one  St.  Thomas 
had  planted  in  person,  in  the  continent  of  America." 

The  Chibchas 

A  people  called  the  Chibchas  dwelt  at  a  very  high 
point  of  the  Andes  range.  They  were  brave  and  in- 
dustrious, and  possessed  a  culture  of  their  own.  They 
defended  themselves  against  much  stronger  native 
races,  but  after  the  Spanish  conquest  their  country  was 
included  in  New  Granada,  and  is  now  part  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia.  Less  experienced  than  the 
Peruvians  or  Aztecs,  they  could,  however,  weave  and 
dye,  carve  and  engrave,  make  roads,  build  temples, 
and  work  in  stone,  wood,  and  metals.  They  also 
worked  in  pottery  and  jewellery,  making  silver  pen- 
dants and  collars  of  shells  and  collars  of  precious 
stones.  They  were  a  wealthy  folk,  and  their  Spanish 
conquerors  obtained  much  spoil.  Little  is  known 
concerning  them  or  their  language,  and  there  is  not 
much  of  interest  in  the  traditions  relating  to  them. 

275 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Their  mythology  was  simple.  They  believed  the 
moon  was  the  wife  of  Bochica,  who  represented  the 
sun,  and  as  she  tried  to  destroy  men  Bochica  only 
allowed  her  to  give  light  during  the  night.  When 
the  aborigines  were  in  a  condition  of  barbarism  Bochica 
taught  them  and  civilised  them.  The  legends  about 
Bochica  resemble  in  many  points  those  about  Quetzal- 
coatl  or  Manco  Ccapac,  as  well  as  those  relating  to  the 
founder  of  Buddhism  and  the  first  Inca  of  Peru.  The 
Chibchas  offered  human  sacrifices  to  their  gods  at 
certain  intervals,  and  kept  the  wretched  victim  for 
some  years  in  preparation  for  his  doom.  They  vene- 
rated greatly  the  Lake  of  Quatavita,  and  are  supposed 
to  have  flung  their  treasures  into  it  when  they  were 
conquered.  Although  many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  recover  these,  little  of  value  has  been  found. 

The  Chibchas  appear  to  have  given  allegiance  to  two 
leaders,  one  the  Zippa,  who  lived  at  Bogota,  the  other 
the  Zoquc,  who  lived  at  Hunsa,  now  Tunja.  These 
chiefs  ruled  supreme.  Like  the  Incas,  they  could 
only  have  one  lawful  wife,  and  their  sons  did  not 
succeed  them — their  power  passed,  as  in  some  Central 
African  tribes,  to  the  eldest  son  of  the  sister. 

When  the  Zippa  died,  sweet-smelling  resin  took  the 
place  of  his  internal  parts,  and  the  body  was  put  in  a 
wooden  coffin,  with  sheets  of  gold  for  ornamentation. 
The  coffin  was  hidden  in  an  unknown  sepulchre,  and 
these  tombs  have  never  been  discovered — at  least,  so 
say  the  Spaniards.  Their  weapons,  garments,  objects 
of  daily  use,  even  jars  of  chichay  were  buried  with  these 
chiefs.  It  is  very  likely  that  a  cave  where  rows  of 
mummies  richly  dressed  were  found,  and  many  jewels, 
was  the  secret  buryi  tig-place  of  the  Zippas  and  the 
Zoques.  To  these  folk  death  meant  only  a  continuation 
of  th«  life  on  earth. 
276 


A  SEVERE  LEGAL  CODE 

A  Severe  Legal  Code 

The  laws  of  the  Chibchas  were  severe — death  was 
meted  out  to  the  murderer,  and  bodily  punishment  for 
stealing.  A  coward  was  made  to  look  like  a  woman 
and  do  her  work,  while  to  an  unfaithful  wife  was 
administered  a  dose  of  red  pepper,  which,  if  swallowed, 
released  the  culprit  from  the  penalty  of  death  and 
entitled  her  to  an  apology  from  her  husband.  The 
Chibchas  made  no  use  of  cattle,  and  lived  on  honey. 
Their  houses  were  built  of  clay,  and  were  set  in  the 
midst  of  an  enclosure  guarded  by  watch-towers.  The 
roofs  were  of  a  conical  shape,  covered  with  reed  mats, 
and  skilfully  interlaced  rushes  were  used  to  close  the 
openings. 

The  Chibchas  were  skilful  in  working  bronze,  lead, 
copper,  tin,  gold,  and  silver,  but  not  iron.  The  Saint- 
Germain  Museum  has  many  specimens  of  gold  and 
silver  articles  made  by  these  people.  M.  Uricaechea 
has  still  more  uncommon  specimens  in  his  collection, 
such  as  two  golden  masks  of  the  human  face  larger 
than  life,  and  a  great  number  of  statuettes  of  men,  and 
images  of  monkeys  and  frogs. 

The  Chibchas  traded  with  what  they  made,  exporting 
the  rock  salt  they  found  in  their  own  country  and 
receiving  in  exchange  cereals  with  which  to  cultivate 
their  own  poor  soil.  They  also  made  curious  little 
ornaments  which  might  haye  passed  for  money,  but 
they  are  not  supposed  to  have  understood  coinage. 
They  had  few  stone  columns — only  large  granite  rocks 
covered  with  huge  figures  of  tigers  and  crocodiles. 
Humboldt  mentions  these,  and  two  very  high  columns, 
covered  with  sculpture,  at  the  junction  of  the  Carare 
and  Magdalena,  greatly  revered  by  the  natives,  were 
raised  probably  by  the  Chibchat . 

«rr 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

A  Strange  Mnemonic  System 

On  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  the  Peruvians  were 
unacquainted  with  any  system  of  writing  or  numera- 
tion. The  only  means  of  recording  events  they  pos- 
sessed was  that  provided  by  quipos,  knotted  pieces 
of  string  or  hide  of.  varying  length  and  colour. 
According  to  the  length  or  colour  of  these  cords  the 
significance  of  the  record  varied  ;  it  was  sometimes 
historical  and  sometimes  mathematical.  Quipos  relat- 
ing to  the  history  of  the  Incas  were  carefully  pre- 
served by  an  officer  called  Quipo  Camayol — literally, 
"The  Guardian  of  the  Quipos"  The  greater  number 
were  destroyed  as  monuments  of  idolatry  by  the 
fanatical  Spanish  monks  who  came  over  with  the 
Conquistadores,  but  their  loss  is  by  no  means  im- 
portant, as  no  study,  however  profound,  could  possibly 
unriddle  the  system  upon  which  they  were  based.  The 
Peruvians,  however,  long  continued  to  use  them  in 
secret. 

Practical  Use  of  the  Quipos 

The  Marquis  de  Nadaillac  has  placed  on  record  a 
use  to  which  the  quipos  were  put  in  more  modern 
times.  He  says :  "A  great  revolt  against  the  Spaniards 
was  organised  in  1792.  As  was  found  out  later,  the 
revolt  had  been  organised  by  means  of  messengers 
carrying  a  piece  of  wood  in  which  were  enclosed 
threads  the  ends  of  which  were  formed  of  red,  black, 
blue,  or  white  fringes.  The  black  thread  had  four 
knots,  which  signified  that  the  messenger  had  started 
from  Vladura,  the  residence  of  the  chief  of  the  con- 
spiracy, four  days  after  full  moon.  The  white  thread 
had  ten  knots,  which  signified  that  the  revolt  would 
break  out  ten  days  after  the  arrival  of  the  messenger. 
278 


THE  INCAS  AS  CRAFTSMEN 
The  person  to  whom  the  keeper  was  sent  had  in  his 
turn  to  make  a  knot  in  the  red  thread  if  he  agreed  to 
join  the  confederates ;  in  the  red  and  blue  threads,  on 
the  contrary,  if  he  refused."  It  was  by  means  of  these 
quipos  that  the  Incas  transmitted  their  instructions.  On 
all  the  roads  starting  from  the  capital,  at  distances  rarely 
exceeding  five  miles,  rose  tambos,  or  stations  for  the 
chasquis  or  couriers,  who  went  from  one  post  to  another. 
The  orders  of  the  Inca  thus  became  disseminated  with 
great  rapidity.  Orders  which  emanated  directly  from 
the  sovereign  were  marked  with  a  red  thread  of  the 
royal  llantu  (mantle),  and  nothing,  as  historians  assure 
us,  could  equal  the  respect  with  which  these  messages 
were  received. 

The  Incas  as  Craftsmen 

The  Incan  Peruvians  had  made  some  progress  in 
the  metallurgic,  ceramic,  and  textile  arts.  By  washing 
the  sands  of  the  rivers  of  Caravaya  they  obtained  large 
quantities  of  gold,  and  they  extracted  silver  from  the 
ore  by  means  of  blast-furnaces.  Copper  also  was 
abundant,  and  was  employed  to  manufacture  bronze, 
of  which  most  of  their  implements  were  made. 
Although  it  is  difficult  to  know  at  what  period  their 
mining  operations  were  carried  on,  it  is  evident  that 
they  could  only  have  learned  the  art  through  long 
experience.  Many  proofs  are  to  be  found  of  their 
skill  in  jewellery,  and  amongst  these  are  wonderful 
statuettes  which  they  made  from  an  amalgam  of  gold 
and  mercury,  afterwards  exposed  to  great  heat.  A 
number  of  curious  little  ornaments  made  of  various 
substances,  with  a  little  hole  bored  through  them,  were 
frequently  found  under  the  huacas — probably  talismans. 
The  finest  handiwork  of  the  Incas  was  undoubtedly 
in  jewellery  ;  but  unfortunately  most  of  the  examples 

279 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
of  their  work  in  this  craft  were  melted  down  to  assuage 
the  insatiable  avarice  of  the  Spanish  conquerors,  and 
arc  therefore  for  ever  lost  to  us.  The  spade  and  chisel 
employed  in  olden  times  by  the  Peruvians  are  much 
the  same  as  the  people  use  now,  but  some  of  their  tools 
were  clumsy.  Their  javelins,  tomahawks,  and  other 
military  arms  were  very  futile  weapons.  Some  found 
near  the  mines  of  Pasco  were  made  of  stone. 

The  spinning,  weaving,  and  dyeing  of  the  Peruvians 
were  unequalled  in  aboriginal  America,  their  cloths 
and  tapestries  being  both  graceful  in  design  and  strong 
in  texture. 

Stamps  of  bark  or  earthenware  were  employed  to  fix 
designs  upon  their  woollen  stuffs,  and  feathers  were 
added  to  the  garments  made  from  these,  the  combina- 
tion producing  a  gay  effect  much  admired  by  the 
Spaniards.  The  British  Museum  possesses  some  good 
specimens  of  these  manufactures. 

Pottery 

The  Peruvians  excelled  in  the  potter's  art.  The 
pottery  was  baked  in  a  kiln,  and  was  varied  in  colour, 
red,  black,  and  grey  being  the  favourite  shades.  It 
was  varnished  outside,  and  the  vases  were  moulded  in 
two  pieces  and  joined  before  heating.  Much  of  the 
work  is  of  great  grace  and  elegance,  and  the  shapes  of 
animals  were  very  skilfully  imitated.  Many  drinking- 
cups  of  elegant  design  have  been  discovered,  and  some 
vases  are  of  considerable  size,  measuring  over  three  feet 
in  height.  A  simple  geometric  pattern  is  usually  em- 
ployed for  decoration,  but  sometimes  rows  of  birds  and 
insects  figure  in  the  ceramics.  The  pottery  of  the  coast 
people  is  more  rich  and  varied  than  that  of  the  Inca  race 
proper,  and  among  its  types  we  find  vases  moulded  in 
the  form  of  human  faces,  many  of  them  exhibiting  so 

t8o 


I.  Vase  of  painted  terra-cotta  in  form  of  a  seated  figure, 

with  busts  on  each  side 
2.  Three  black  terra-cotta  vases 

Photo  Mansell  &  Co. 


280 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  1NCAN  PERUVIANS 
much  character  that  we  arc  forced  to  conclude  that  they 
are  veritable  portraits.  Fine  stone  dishes  are  often  found, 
as  well  as  platters  of  wood,  and  these  frequently  bear  as 
ornament  tasteful  carvings  representing  serpents.  On 
several  cups  and  vases  are  painted  representations  of 
battles  between  the  Inca  forces  and  the  savages  of  the 
eastern  forests  using  bows  and  arrows  ;  below  wander  the 
animals  of  the  forest  region,  a  brightly  painted  group. 

The  Archaeological  Museum  of  Madrid  gives  a 
representation  of  very  varied  kinds  of  Peruvian 
pottery,  including  some  specimens  modelled  upon  a 
series  of  plants,  interesting  to  botanists.  The  Louvre 
collections  have  one  or  two  interesting  examples  ot 
earthenware,  as  well  as  the  Ethnographical  Museum  of 
St.  Petersburg,  and  in  all  these  collections  there  are  types 
which  are  believed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Old  World. 

The  Trocadero  Museum  has  a  very  curious  specimen 
with  two  necks  called  the  "Salvador."  A  drawing  on 
the  vase  represents  a  man  with  a  tomahawk.  The 
Peruvians,  like  the  Mexicans,  also  made  musical 
instruments  out  of  earthenware,  and  heavy  ornaments, 
principally  for  the  ear. 

Historical  Sketch  of  the  Incan  Peruvians 

The  Inca  dominion,  as  the  Spaniards  found  it,  was 
instituted  only  about  a  century  before  the  coming  of 
the  white  man.  Before  that  time  Inca  sway  held  good 
over  scattered  portions  of  the  country,  but  had  not 
extended  over  the  entire  territory  which  in  later  times 
was  connected  with  the  Inca  name.  That  it  was 
founded  on  the  wreck  of  a  more  ancient  power  which 
once  existed  in  the  district  of  Chinchay-suyu  there  can 
be  little  doubt.  This  power  was  wielded  over  a  space 
bounded  by  the  lake  of  Chinchay-cocha  on  the  north 
and  Abancay  on  the  south,  and  extended  to  the  Pacific 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
at  the  valley  of  Chincha.  It  was  constituted  by  an 
alliance  of  tribes  under  the  leadership  of  the  chief  of 
Pucara,  in  the  Huanca  country.  A  branch  of  this 
confederacy,  the  Chanca,  pushing  southward  in  a 
general  movement,  encountered  the  Inca  people  or 
Colla-suyu,  who,  under  their  leader,  Pachacutic,  a 
young  but  determined  chieftain,  defeated  the  invaders 
in  a  decisive  battle  near  Cuzco.  In  consequence  of  this 
defeat  the  Chanca  deserted  their  former  allies  and  made 
common  cause  with  their  victors.  Together  the  armies 
made  a  determined  attack  on  the  Huanca  alliance, 
which  they  broke  up,  and  conquered  the  northern 
districts  of  the  Chinchay-suyu.  Thus  Central  Peru 
fell  to  the  Inca  arms. 

The  Inca  Monarchs 

Inca  history,  or  rather  tradition,  as  we  must  call  it 
in  the  light  of  an  unparalleled  lack  of  original  docu- 
mentary evidence,  spoke  of  a  series  of  eleven  monarchs 
from  Manco  Ccapac  to  Huaina  Ccapac,  who  died 
shortly  before  the  Spanish  conquest.  These  *  had 
reigned  for  a  collective  period  of  nearly  350  years. 
The  evidence  that  these  chiefs  had  reigned  was  of  the 
best,  for  their  mummified  bodies  were  preserved  in  the 
great  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Cuzco,  already  described. 
There  they  received  the  same  daily  service  as  when  in 
the  flesh.  Their  private  herds  of  llamas  and  slaves 
were  still  understood  to  belong  to  them,  and  food  and 
drink  were  placed  before,  them  at  stated  intervals. 
Clothes  were  made  for  them,  and  they  were  carried 
about  in  palanquins  as  if  for  daily  exercise.  The 
descendants  of  each  at  periodical  intervals  feasted  on 
the  produce  of  their  ancestor's  private  estate,  and  his 
mummy  was  set  in  the  centre  of  the  diners  and  treated 
as  the  principal  guest. 
282 


THE  FIRST  INCAS 

The  First  Incas 

After  Manco  Ccapac  and  his  immediate  successor, 
Sinchi  Roca  (Wise  Chief),  Lloque  Yupanqui  comes 
third  in  the  series.  He  died  while  his  son  was  still  a 
child.  Concerning  Mayta  Ccapac,  who  commenced  his 
reign  while  yet  a  minor,  but  little  is  known.  He  was 
followed  by  Ccapac  Yupanqui,  who  defeated  the  Conti- 
suyu,  who  had  grown  alarmed  at  the  great  power 
recently  attained  by  Cuzco.  The  Inca  and  his  men 
were  attacked  whilst  about  to  offer  sacrifice.  A  second 
attempt  to  sack  Cuzco  and  divide  its  spoil  and  the 
women  attached  to  the  great  Temple  of  the  Sun  like- 
wise ended  in  the  total  discomfiture  of  the  jealous 
invaders.  With  Inca  Roca,  the  next  Inca,  a  new 
dynasty  commences,  but  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to 
trace  the  connection  between  it  and  the  preceding  one. 
Of  the  origin  of  Inca  Roca  nothing  is  related  save  that 
he  claimed  descent  from  Manco  Ccapac.  Roca,  instead 
of  waiting  to  be  attacked  in  his  own  dominions,  boldly 
confronted  the  Conti-suyu  in  their  own  territory, 
defeated  them  decisively  at  Pumatampu,  and  compelled 
them  to  yield  him  tribute.  His  successor,  Yahuar- 
huaccac,  initiated  a  similar  campaign  against  the  Colla- 
suyu  people,  against  whom  he  had  the  assistance  of  the 
conquered  Conti-suyu.  But  at  a  feast  which  he  held  in 
Cuzco  before  setting  out  he  was  attacked  by  his  allies, 
and  fled  to  the  Coricancha,  or  Golden  Temple  of  the 
Sun,  for  refuge,  along  with  his  wives.  Resistance  was 
unavailing,  and  the  Inca  and  many  of  his  favourites 
were  slaughtered.  The  allied  tribes  which  had  over- 
run Central  Peru  now  threatened  Cuzco,  and  had  they 
advanced  with  promptitude  the  Inca  dynasty  would 
have  been  wiped  out  and  the  city  reduced  to  ruins. 
A  strong  man  was  at  hand,  however,  who  was  capable  of 

283 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

dealing  with  the  extremely  dangerous  situation  which 
had  arisen.  This  was  Viracocha,  a  chieftain  chosen 
by  the  vote  of  the  assembled  warriors  of  Cuzco.  By 
a  prudent  conciliation  of  the  Conti-suyu  and  Colla- 
suyu  he  established  a  confederation  which  not  only 
put  an  end  to  all  threats  of  invasion,  but  so  menaced 
the  invaders  that  they  were  glad  to  return  to  their  own 
territory  and  place  it  in  a  suitable  state  of  defence. 

Viracocha  the  Great 

With  Viracocha  the  Great,  or  "Godlike,"  the 
period  of  true  Inca  ascendancy  commences.  He  was 
the  real  founder  of  the  enlarged  Inca  dominion.  He 
was  elected  Inca  on  his  personal  merits,  and  during 
a  vigorous  reign  succeeded  in  making  the  influence  of 
Cuzco  felt  in  the  contiguous  southern  regions.  In  his 
old  age  he  retired  to  his  country  seats  at  Yucay  and 
Xaquixahuana,  and  left  the  conduct  of  the  realm  to  his 
son  and  successor,  Urco-Inca,  a  weak-minded  volup- 
tuary, who  neglected  his  royal  duties,  and  was  super- 
seded by  his  younger  brother,  Pachacutic,  a  famous 
character  in  Inca  history. 

The  Plain  of  Blood 

The  commencement  of  Pachacutic's  reign  witnessed 
one  of  the  most  sanguinary  battles  in  the  history  of 
Peru.  Hastu-huaraca,  chief  of  the  Antahuayllas,  in 
the  Chanca  country,  invaded  the  Inca  territory,  and 
encamped  on  the  hills  of  Carmenca,  which  overlooks 
Cuzco.  Pachacutic  held  a  parley  with  him,  but  all  to 
no  purpose,  for  the  powerful  invader  was  deter- 
mined to  humble  the  Inca  dynasty  to  the  dust.  Battle 
was  speedily  joined.  The  first  day's  fight  was 
indecisive,  but  on  the  succeeding  day  Pachacutic 
won  a  great  victory,  the  larger  part  of  the  invading 
"4 


FUSION  OF  RACES 

force  being  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  Hastu- 
huaraca  retreating  with  five  hundred  followers  only. 
The  battle  of  Yahuar-pampa  (Plain  of  Blood)  was  the 
turning-point  in  Peruvian  history.  The  young  Inca, 
formerly  known  as  Yupanqui,  was  now  called  Pacha- 
cutic  (He  who  changes  the  World).  The  warriors  of  the 
south  made  full  submission  to  him,  and  came  in  crowds 
to  offer  him  their  services  and  seek  his  alliance  and 
friendship,  and  he  shortly  found  himself  supreme  in  the 
territories  over  which  his  predecessors  had  exercised 
merely  a  nominal  control. 

The  Conquest  of  Middle  Peru 

Hastu-huaraca,  who  had  been  commissioned  by  the 
allied  tribesmen  of  Chinchay-suyu  to  reduce  the  Incas, 
now  threw  in  his  lot  with  them,  and  together  conqueror 
and  conquered  proceeded  to  the  liberation  of  the  district 
of  Chinchay-suyu  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Huanca 
alliance.  The  reduction  of  the  southern  portion  of  that 
territory  was  speedily  accomplished.  In  the  valley  of 
Xauxa  the  invaders  came  upon  the  army  of  the  Huanca, 
on  which  they  inflicted  a  final  defeat.  The  Inca  spared 
and  liberated  the  prisoners  of  war,  who  were  numerous. 
Once  more,  at  Tarma,  were  the  Huanca  beaten,  after 
which  all  resistance  appears  to  have  been  overcome. 
The  city-state  of  Cuzco  was  now  the  dominant  power 
throughout  the  whole  of  Central  Peru,  a  territory  300 
miles  in  length,  whilst  it  exercised  a  kind  of  suzerainty 
over  a  district  of  equal  extent  toward  the  south-east, 
which  it  shortly  converted  into  actual  dominion. 

Fusion  of  Races 

This  conquest  ot  Central  Peru  led  to  the  fusing  of 
the  Quichua-speaking  tribes  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Apurimac  with  the  Aymara-speaking  folk  on  the  right 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

bank,  with  the  result  that  the  more  numerous  Quichua 
speedily  gained  linguistic  ascendancy  over  their  brethren 
the  Aymara.  Subsequently  to  this  the  peoples  of 
Southern  and  Central  Peru,  led  by  Inca  headmen, 
swept  in  a  great  wave  of  migration  over  Cerro  de 
Pasco,  where  they  met  with  little  or  no  resistance,  and 
Pachacutic  lived  to  be  lord  over  a  dominion  extending 
for  a  thousand  miles  to  the  northward,  and  founder  of 
a  great  Inca  colony  south  of  the  equator  almost  identical 
in  outline  with  the  republic  of  Ecuador. 

Two  Branches  of  the  Incas 

These  conquests,  or  rather  race-movements,  split  up 
the  Inca  people  into  two  separate  portions,  the  re- 
spective centres  of  which  were  well-nigh  a  thousand 
miles  apart.  The  centre  of  the  northern  district  was 
at  Tumipampa,  Riopampa,  and  Quito  at  different 
periods.  The  political  separation  of  these  areas  was 
only  a  question  of  time.  Geographical  conditions 
almost  totally  divided  the  two  portions  of  the  empire, 
a  sparsely  populated  stretch  of  country  400  miles  in 
extent  lying  between  them  (see  map,  p.  333.) 

The  Laws  of  Pachacutic 

Pachacutic  united  to  his  fame  as  a  warrior  the 
reputation  of  a  wise  and  liberal  ruler.  He  built  the 
great  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Cuzco,  probably  on  the  site 
of  a  still  older  building,  and  established  in  its  walls  the 
convent  in  which  five  hundred  maidens  were  set  apart 
for  the  service  of  the  god.  He  also,  it  is  said, 
instituted  the  great  rite  of  the  Ccapac-cocha,  at  which 
maize,  cloth,  llamas,  and  children  were  sacrificed 
in  honour  of  the  sun-god.  He  devised  a  kind  of 
census,  by  which  governors  were  compelled  periodically 
to  render  an  account  of  the  population  under  their 
z86 


TUPAC- YUPANQUI 

rule.  This  statement  was  made  by  means  of  quipos. 
Agriculture  was  his  peculiar  care,  and  he  was  stringent 
in  the  enforcement  of  laws  regarding  the  tilling  of  the 
soil,  the  foundation  and  upkeep  of  stores  and  granaries, 
and  the  regulation  of  labour  in  general.  As  an  architect 
he  took  upon  himself  the  task  of  personally  designing 
the  principal  buildings  of  the  city  of  Cuzco,  which  were 
rebuilt  under  his  instructions  and  in  accordance  with 
models  moulded  from  clay  by  his  own  hands.  He 
appears  to  have  had  a  passion  for  order,  and  to  him  we 
may  be  justified  in  tracing  the  rigorous  and  almost 
grandmotherly  system  under  which  the  Peruvians 
were  living  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  their  Spanish 
conquerors.  To  Pachacutic,  too,  is  assigned  the  raising 
of  the  immense  fortress  of  Sacsahuaman,  already 
described.  He  further  instituted  the  order  of  knight- 
hood known  as  Auqui,  or  "  Warrior,"  entrance  to 
which  was  granted  to  suitable  applicants  at  the  great 
feast  of  Ccapac  Raymi,  or  Festival  of  the  Sun.  He 
also  named  the  succession  of  moons,  and  erected 
the  pillars  on  the  hill  of  Carmenca  by  which  the  season 
of  solstice  was  found.  In  short,  all  law  and  order 
which  had  a  place  in  the  Peruvian  social  economy  were 
attributed  to  him,  and  we  may  designate  him  the 
Alfred  of  his  race. 

Tupac-Yupanqui 

Pachacutic's  son,  Tupac-Yupanqui,  for  some  time 
before  his  father's  death  acted  as  his  lieutenant.  His 
name  signifies  "  Bright "  or  "  Shining."  His  activity 
extended  to  every  portion  of  the  Inca  dominion,  the 
borders  of  which  he  enlarged,  suppressing  revolts,  sub- 
jugating tribes  not  wholly  brought  within  the  pale  of 
Inca  influence,  and  generally  completing  the  work  so 
ably  begun  by  his  father. 

287 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

"The  Gibbet" 

A  spirit  of  cruelty  and  excess  such  as  was  unknown 
to  Pachacutic  marked  the  military  exploits  of  Tupac. 
In  the  valley  of  Huarco,  near  the  Pacific  coast,  for 
example,  he  was  repulsed  by  the  natives,  who  were 
well  supplied  with  food  and  stores  of  all  sorts,  and 
whose  town  was  well  fortified  and  very  strongly 

•  1  T«  • 

situated.  Tupac  constructed  an  immense  camp,  or 
rather  town,  the  outlines  of  which  recalled  those  of 
his  capital  of  Cuzco,  on  a  hill  opposite  the  city, 
and  here  he  calmly  sat  down  to  watch  the  gradual 
starvation  of  the  enemy.  This  siege  continued  for 
three  years,  until  the  wretched  defenders,  driven  to 
despair  through  want  of  food,  capitulated,  relying  on 
the  assurance  of  their  conqueror  that  they  should 
become  a  part  of  the  Inca  nation  and  that  their 
daughters  should  become  the  wives  of  Inca  youths. 
The  submission  of  their  chiefs  having  been  made, 
Tupac  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  the  warriors,  and 
principal  civilians.  At  the  conquest  the  Spaniard? 
could  still  see  the  immense  heaps  of  bones  which 
littered  the  spot  where  this  heartless  holocaust  took 
place,  and  the  name  Huarco  (The  Gibbet)  became 
indissolubly  associated  with  the  district. 

Huaina  Ccapac 

Tupac  died  in  14931  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Huaina  Ccapac  (The  Young  Chief).  Huaina  was  about 
twenty-two  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  his  father's 
death,  and  although  the  late  Inca  had  named  Ccapac- 
Huari,  his  son  by  another  wife,  as  his  successor,  the 
claims  of  Huaina  were  recognised.  His  reign  was 
peaceful,  and  was  marked  by  wise  administrative 
improvements  and  engineering  effort.  At  the  same 
288 


THE  INCA  CIVIL  WAR 

time  he  was  busily  employed  in  holding  the  savage 
peoples  who  surrounded  his  empire  in  check.  He 
favoured  the  northern  colony,  and  rebuilt  Tumipampa, 
but  resided  at  Quito.  Here  he  dwelt  for  some  years 
with  a  favourite  son  by  a  wife  of  the  lower  class, 
named  Tupac-atau-huallpa  (The  Sun  makes  Good 
Fortune).  Huaina  was  the  victim  of  an  epidemic 
raging  in  Peru  at  the  time.  He  was  greatly  feared  by 
his  subjects,  and  was  the  last  Incawho  held  undisputed 
sway  over  the  entire  dominion.  Like  Nezahualcoyotl 
in  Mexico,  he  attempted  to  set  up  the  worship  of  one 
god  in  Peru,  to  the  detriment  of  all  other  huacas,  or 
sacred  beings. 

The  Inca  Civil  War 

On  the  death  of  Huaina  his  two  sons,  Huascar  and 
Atauhuallpa,1  strove  for  the  crown.  Before  his  demise 
Huaina  had  divided  his  dominion  between  his  two 
sons,  but  it  was  said  that  he  had  wrested  Quito  from  a 
certain  chieftain  whose  daughter  he  had  married,  and 
by  whom  he  had  Atauhuallpa,  who  was  therefore  right- 
ful heir  to  that  province.  The  other  son,  Huascar,  or 
Tupac-cusi-huallpa  (The  Sun  makes  Joy),  was  born  to 
his  principal  sister-wife — for,  according  to  Inca  custom, 
the  monarchs  of  Peru,  like  those  of  certain  Egyptian 
dynasties,  tilled  with  pride  of  race,  and  unwilling  to 
mingle  their  blood  with  that  of  plebeians,  took  spouses 
from  among  their  sisters.  This  is  the  story  as  given 
by  many  Spanish  chroniclers,  but  it  has  no  foundation 
in  fact.  Atauhuallpa  was  in  reality  the  son  of  a  woman 
of  the  people,  and  Huascar  was  not  the  son  of  Huaina's 
sister-wife,  but  of  a  wife  of  less  intimate  relationship. 
Therefore  both  sons  were  on  an  equality  as  regards 

1  This  is  the  name  by  which  he  is  generally  alluded  to  in  Peruvian 
history, 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

descent.  Huascar,  however,  was  nearer  the  throne  by 
virtue  of  his  mother's  status,  which  was  that  of  a  royal 
princess,  whereas  the  mother  of  Atauhuallpa  was  not 
officially  recognised.  Huascar  by  his  excesses  and  his 
outrages  on  religion  and  public  decency  aroused  the 
people  to  revolt  against  his  power,  and  Atauhuallpa, 
discerning  his  opportunity  in  this  dmeute,  made  a  deter- 
mined attack  on  the  royal  forces,  and  succeeded  in 
driving  them  slowly  back,  until  at  last  Tumipampa  was 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  impor- 
tant southerly  fortress  of  Caxamarca  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  rebels. 

A  Dramatic  Situation 

Atauhuallpa  remained  at  Caxamarca,  and  despatched 
the  bulk  of  his  forces  into  the  enemy's  country.  These 
drove  the  warriors  of  Huascar  back  until  the  upper 
courses  of  the  Apurimac  were  reached.  Huascar  fled 
from  Cuzco,  but  was  captured,  and  carried  a  prisoner 
with  his  mother,  wife,  and  children  to  Atauhuallpa. 
Not  many  days  afterwards  news  of  the  landing  of"  the 
Spaniards  was  received  by  the  rebel  Inca.  The  down- 
fall of  the  Peruvian  Empire  was  at  hand. 

A  "Worthless  Despotism 

If  the  blessings  of  a  well-regulated  government  were 
dispensed  by  the  Incas,  these  benefits  were  assuredly 
counterbalanced  by  the  degrading  despotism  which 
accompanied  them.  The  political  organisation  of  the 
Peruvian  Empire  was  in  every  sense  more  complete 
than  that  of  Mexico.  But  in  a  state  where  individual 
effort  and  liberty  are  entirely  crushed  even  such  an 
effective  organisation  as  the  Peruvian  can  avail  the 
people  little,  and  is  merely  a  device  for  the  support  of 
a  calculated  tyranny. 
190 


CHAPTER  VII :  THE  MYTHOLOGY 
OF  PERU 

The  Religion  of  Ancient  Peru 

f   I    nHE    religion   of   the   ancient    Peruvians     had 
obviously   developed  in  a    much  shorter  time 

]L  than  that  of  the  Mexicans.  The  more  ancient 
character  inherent  in  it  was  displayed  in  the  presence  of 
deities  many  of  which  were  little  better  than  mere 
totems,  and  although  a  definite  monotheism  or  worship 
of  one  god  appears  to  have  been  reached,  it  was  not  by 
the  efforts  of  the  priestly  caste  that  this  was  achieved, 
but  rather  by  the  will  of  the  Inca  Pachacutic,  who 
seems  to  have  been  a  monarch  gifted  with  rare  insight 
and  ability — a  man  much  after  the  type  of  the  Mexican 
Nezahualcoyotl. 

In  Inca  times  the  religion  of  the  people  was  solely 
directed  by  the  state,  and  regulated  in  such  a  manner 
that  independent  theological  thought  was  permitted  no 
outlet.  But  it  must  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  no 
change  had  ever  come  over  the  spirit  of  Peruvian 
religion.  As  a  matter  of  fact  sweeping  changes  had 
been  effected,  but  these  had  been  solely  the  work  of  the 
Inca  race,  the  leaders  of  which  had  amalgamated  the 
various  faiths  of  the  peoples  whom  they  had  conquered 
into  one  official  belief. 

Totemism 

Garcilasso  el  Inca  de  la  Vega,  an  early  Spanish  writer 
on  matters  Peruvian,  states  that  tradition  ran  that  in 
ante-Inca  times  every  district,  family,  and  village  pos- 
sessed its  own  god,  each  different  from  the  others. 
These  gods  were  usually  such  objects  as  trees,  moun- 
tains, flowers,  herbs,  caves,  large  stones,  pieces  of 
jasper,  and  animals.  The  jaguar,  puma,  and  bear  were 

291 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

worshipped  for  their  strength  and  fierceness,  the 
monkey  and  fox  for  their  cunning,  the  condor  for  its 
size  and  because  several  tribes  believed  themselves  to 
be  descended  from  it.  The  screech-owl  was  worshipped 
for  its  beauty,  and  the  common  owl  for  its  power  of 
seeing  in  the  dark.  Serpents,  particularly  the  larger 
and  more  dangerous  varieties,  were  especially  regarded 
with  reverence. 

Although  Payne  classes  all  these  gods  together  as 
totems,  it  is  plain  that  those  of  the  first  class — the 
flowers,  herbs,  caves,  and  pieces  of  jasper — are  merely 
fetishes.  A  fetish  is  an  object  in  which  the  savage 
believes  to  be  resident  a  spirit  which,  by  its  magic,  will 
assist  him  in  his  undertakings.  A  totem  is  an  object 
or  an  animal,  usually  the  latter,  with  which  the  people 
of  a  tribe  believe  themselves  to  be  connected  by  ties  of 
blood  and  from  which  they  are  descended.  It  later 
becomes  the  type  or  symbol  of  the  tribe. 

Paccariscas 

Lakes,  springs,  rocks,  mountains,  precipices,  and 
caves  were  all  regarded  by  the  various  Peruvian  tribes 
as  paccariscas — places  whence  their  ancestors  had  ori- 
ginally issued  to  the  upper  world.  The  paccarisca 
was  usually  saluted  with  the  cry,  "  Thou  art  my  birth- 
place, thou  art  my  life-spring.  Guard  me  from  evil,  O 
Paccarisca  !  "  In  the  holy  spot  a  spirit  was  supposed 
to  dwell  which  served  the  tribe  as  a  kind  of  oracle. 
Naturally  the  paccarisca  was  looked  upon  with  extreme 
reverence.  It  became,  indeed,  a  sort  of  life-centre  for 
the  tribe,  from  which  they  were  very  unwilling  to  be 
separated. 

Worship  of  Stones 

The  worship  of  stones  appears  to  have  been  almost 
as  universal  in  ancient  Peru  as  it  was  in  ancient  Pales- 
292 


WORSHIP  OF  STONES 

tine.  Man  in  his  primitive  state  believes  stones  to  be 
the  framework  of  the  earth,  its  bony  structure.  He 
considers  himself  to  have  emerged  from  some  cave — in 
fact,  from  the  entrails  of  the  earth.  Nearly  all  American 
creation-myths  regard  man  as  thus  emanating  from  the 
bowels  of  the  great  terrestrial  mother.  Rocks  which 
were  thus  chosen  as  paccariscas  are  found,  among  many 
other  places,  at  Calfca,  in  the  valley  of  the  Yucay,  and 
at  Titicaca  there  is  a  great  mass  of  red  sandstone 
on  the  top  of  a  high  ridge  with  almost  inaccessible 
slopes  and  dark,  gloomy  recesses  where  the  sun  was 
thought  to  have  hidden  himself  at  the  time  of  the 
great  deluge  which  covered  all  the  earth.  The  rock 
of  Titicaca  was,  in  fact,  the  great  paccarisca  of  the  sun 
itself. 

We  are  thus  not  surprised  to  find  that  many  standing 
stones  were  worshipped  in  Peru  in  aboriginal  times. 
Thus  Arriaga  states  that  rocks  of  great  size  which 
bore  some  resemblance  to  the  human  figure  were 
imagined  to  have  been  at  one  time  gigantic  men  or 
spirits  who,  because  they  disobeyed  the  creative  power, 
were  turned  into  stone.  According  to  another  account 
they  were  said  to  have  suffered  this  punishment  for 
refusing  to  listen  to  the  words  of  Thonapa,  the  son  of 
the  creator,  who,  like  Quetzalcoatl  or  Manco  Ccapac, 
had  taken  upon  himself  the  guise  of  a  wandering  Indian, 
so  that  he  might  have  an  opportunity  of  bringing  the 
arts  of  civilisation  to  the  aborigines.  At  Tiahuanaco  a 
certain  group  of  stones  was  said  to  represent  all  that 
remained  of  the  villagers  of  that  place,  who,  instead  of 
paying  fitting  attention  to  the  wise  counsel  which 
Thonapa  the  Civiliser  bestowed  upon  them,  continued 
to  dance  and  drink  in  scorn  of  the  teachings  he  had 
brought  to  them. 

Again,  some  stones  were  said  to  have  become  men, 

293 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

as  in  the  old  Greek  creation-legend  of  Deucalion  and 
Pyrrha.  In  the  legend  of  Ccapac  Inca  Pachacutic,  when 
Cuzco  was  attacked  in  force  by  the  Chancas  an  Indian 
erected  stones  to  which  he  attached  shields  and  weapons 
so  that  they  should  appear  to  represent  so  many  war- 
riors in  hiding.  Pachacutic,  in  great  need  of  assistance, 
cried  to  them  with  such  vehemence  to  come  to  his  help 
that  they  became  men,  and  rendered  him  splendid 
service. 

Huacas 

Whatever  was  sacred,  of  sacred  origin,  or  of  the 
nature  of  a  relic  the  Peruvians  designated  a  huaca,  from 
the  root  huacan,  to  howl,  native  worship  invariably 
taking  the  form  of  a  kind  of  howl,  or  weird,  dirge-like 
wailing.  All  objects  of  reverence  were  known  as  huacas, 
although  those  of  a  higher  class  were  also  alluded  to  as 
viracoehas.  The  Peruvians  had,  naturally,  many  forms 
of  huaca,  the  most  popular  of  which  were  those  of 
the  fetish  class  which  could  be  carried  about  by  the 
individual.  These  were  usually  stones  or  pebbles,  many 
of  which  were  carved  and  painted,  and  some  made  to 
represent  human  beings.  The  llama  and  the  ear  of 
maize  were  perhaps  the  most  usual  forms  of  these  sacred 
objects.  Some  of  them  had  an  agricultural  significance. 
In  order  that  irrigation  might  proceed  favourably  a 
huaca  was  placed  at  intervals  in  proximity  to  the 
accquiaS)  or  irrigation  canals,  which  was  supposed  to 
prevent  them  leaking  or  otherwise  failing  to  supply  a 
sufficiency  of  moisture  to  the  parched  maize-fields. 
Huacas  of  this  sort  were  known  as  ccompas,  and  were 
regarded  as  deities  of  great  importance,  as  the  food- 
supply  of  the  community  was  thought  to  be  wholly 
dependent  upon  their  assistance.  Other  huacas  of  a 
similar  kind  were  called  chichics  and  huancas^  and  these 
*94 


THE  MAMAS 

presided  over  the  fortunes  of  the  maize,  and  ensured 
that  a  sufficient  supply  of  rain  should  be  forthcoming. 
Great  numbers  of  these  agricultural  fetishes  were 
destroyed  by  the  zealous  commissary  Hernandez  de 
Avendafio. 

The  Mamas 

Spirits  which  were  supposed  to  be  instrumental  in 
forcing  the  growth  of  the  maize  or  other  plants  were  the 
mamas.  We  find  a  similar  conception  among  many 
Brazilian  tribes  to-day,  so  that  the  idea  appears  to  have 
been  a  widely  accepted  one  in  South  American  coun- 
tries. The  Peruvians  called  such  agencies  "  mothers," 
adding  to  the  generic  name  that  of  the  plant  or  herb 
with  which  they  were  specially  associated.  Thus  acstt- 
mama  was  the  potato-mother,  quinuamama  the  quinua- 
mother,  saramama  the  maize-mother,  and  cocamama  the 
mother  of  the  coca-shrub.  Of  these  the  saramama  was 
naturally  the  most  important,  governing  as  it  did  the 
principal  source  of  the  food-supply  of  the  community. 
Sometimes  an  image  of  the  saramama  was  carved  in 
stone,  in  the  shape  of  an  ear  of  maize.  The  saramama 
was  also  worshipped  in  the  form  of  a  doll,  or  huantay- 
sara,  made  out  of  stalks  of  maize,  renewed  at  each 
harvest,  much  as  the  idols  of  the  great  corn-mother 
of  Mexico  were  manufactured  at  each  harvest-season. 
After  having. been  made,  the  image  was  watched  over 
for  three  nights,  and  then  sacrifice  was  done  to  it.  The 
priest  or  medicine-man  of  the  tribe  would  then  inquire 
of  it  whether  or  not  it  was  capable  of  existing  until 
that  time  in  the  next  year.  If  its  spirit  replied  in  the 
affirmative  it  was  permitted  to  remain  where  it  was  until 
the  following  harvest.  If  not  it  was  removed,  burnt, 
and  another  figure  took  its  place,  to  which  similar 
questions  were  put. 

295 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

The  Huamantantac 

Connected  with  agriculture  in  some  degree  was  the 
Huamantantac  (He  who  causes  the  Cormorants  to 
gather  themselves  together).  This  was  the  agency 
responsible  for  the  gathering  of  sea-birds,  resulting  in 
the  deposits  of  guano  to  be  found  along  the  Peruvian 
coast  which  are  so  valuable  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
maize-plant.  He  was  regarded  as  a  most  beneficent 
spirit,  and  was  sacrificed  to  with  exceeding  fervour. 

Huaris 

The  huariSj  or  "great  ones,"  were  the  ancestors  of 
the  aristocrats  of  a  tribe,  and  were  regarded  as  specially 
favourable  toward  agricultural  effort,  possibly  because 
the  land  had  at  one  time  belonged  to  them  personally. 
They  were  sometimes  alluded  to  as  the  "  gods  of 
strength,"  and  were  sacrificed  to  by  libations  of  chicha. 
Ancestors  in  general  were  deeply  revered,  and  had  an 
agricultural  significance,  in  that  considerable  tracts,  of 
land  were  tilled  in  order  that  they  might  be  supplied  with 
suitable  food  and  drink  offerings.  As  the  number  of 
ancestors  increased  more  and  more  land  was  brought  into 
cultivation,  and  the  hapless  people  had  their  toil  added 
to  immeasurably  by  these  constant  demands  upon  them. 

Huillcas 

The  huillcas  were  huacas  which  partook  of  the  nature 
of  oracles.  Many  of  these  were  serpents,  trees,  and 
rivers,  the  noises  made  by  which  appeared  to  the 
primitive  Peruvians — as,  indeed,  they  do  to  primitive 
folk  all  over  the  world — to  be  of  the  quality  of 
articulate  speech.  Both  the  Huillcamayu  and  the 
Apurimac  rivers  at  Cuzco  were  huillca  oracles  of  this 
kind,  as  their  names,  " Huillca-river "  and  "Great 
296 


THE  ORACLES  OF  THE  ANDES 

Speaker,"  denote.  These  oracles  often  set  the  mandate 
of  the  Inca  himself  at  defiance,  occasionally  supporting 
popular  opinion  against  his  policy. 

The  Oracles  of  the  Andes 

The  Peruvian  Indians  of  the  Andes  range  within 
recent  generations  continued  to  adhere  to  the  super- 
stitions they  had  inherited  from  their  fathers.  A  rare 
and  interesting  account  of  these  says  that  they  "  admit 
an  evil  being,  the  inhabitant  of  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
whom  they  consider  as  the  author  of  their  misfortunes, 
and  at  the  mention  of  whose  name  they  tremble.  The 
most  shrewd  among  them  take  advantage  of  this  belief 
to  obtain  respect,  and  represent  themselves  as  his 
delegates.  Under  the  denomination  of  mohanes,  or 
agoreros,  they  are  consulted  even  on  the  most  trivial 
occasions.  They  preside  over  the  intrigues  of  love, 
the  health  of  the  community,  and  the  taking  of  the 
field.  Whatever  repeatedly  occurs  to  defeat  their 
prognostics,  falls  on  themselves  ;  and  they  are  wont  to 
pay  for  their  deceptions  very  dearly.  They  chew  a 
species  of  vegetable  called  piripiri,  and  throw  it  into  the 
air,  accompanying  this  act  by  certain  recitals  and  in- 
cantations, to  injure  some,  to  benefit  others,  to  procure 
rain  and  the  inundation  of  the  rivers,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  occasion  settled  weather,  and  a  plentiful  store 
of  agricultural  productions.  Any  such  result,  having 
been  casually  verified  on  a  single  occasion,  suffices  to 
confirm  the  Indians  in  their  faith,  although  they  may 
have  been  cheated  a  thousand  times.  Fully  persuaded 
that  they  cannot  resist  the  influence  of  the  piripiri,  as 
soon  as  they  know  that  they  have  been  solicited  in  love 
by  its  means,  they  fix  their  eyes  on  the  impassioned 
object,  and  discover  a  thousand  amiable  traits,  either 
real  or  fanciful,  which  indifference  had  before  concealed 

297 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

from  their  view.  But  the  principal  power,  efficacy,  and 
it  may  be  said  misfortune  of  the  mohanes  consist  in 
the  cure  of  the  sick.  Every  malady  is  ascribed  to  their 
enchantments,  and  means  are  instantly  taken  to  ascer- 
tain by  whom  the  mischief  may  have  been  wrought. 
For  this  purpose,  the  nearest  relative  takes  a  quantity 
of  the  juice  of  floripondium,  and  suddenly  falls  intoxi- 
cated by  the  violence  of  the  plant.  He  is  placed  in  a 
fit  posture  to  prevent  suffocation,  and  on  his  coming  to 
himself,  at  the  end  of  three  days,  the  mohane  who  has 
the  greatest  resemblance  to  the  sorcerer  he  saw  in  his 
visions  is  to  undertake  the  cure,  or  if,  in  the  interim, 
the  sick  man  has  perished,  it  is  customary  to  subject 
him  to  the  same  fate.  When  not  any  sorcerer  occurs 
in  the  visions,  the  first  mohane  they  encounter  has  the 
misfortune  to  represent  his  image." l 

Lake'Worship  in  Peru 

At  Lake  Titicaca  the  Peruvians  believed  the  in- 
habitants of  the  earth,  animals  as  well  as  men,  to  -have 
been  fashioned  by  the  creator,  and  the  district  was 
thus  sacrosanct  in  their  eyes.  The  people  of  the 
Collao  called  it  Mamacota  (Mother-water),  because  it 
furnished  them  with  supplies  of  food.  Two  great 
idols  were  connected  with  this  worship.  One  called 
Copacahuana  was  made  of  a  bluish-green  stone  shaped 
like  a  fish  with  a  human  head,  and  was  placed  in  a 
commanding  position  on  the  shores  of  the  lake.  On 
the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  so  deeply  rooted  was  the 
worship  of  this  goddess  that  they  could  only  suppress 
it  by  raising  an  image  of  the  Virgin  in  place  of  the 
idol.  The  Christian  emblem  remains  to  this  day. 
Mamacota  was  venerated  as  the  giver  of  fish,  with 
which  the  lake  abounded.  The  other  image,  Copacati 

1  Skinner,  State  f/Ptru,  p.  275. 
298 


THE  THUNDER-GOD  OF  PERU 

(Serpent-stone),  represented  the  element  of  water  as 
embodied  in  the  lake  itself  in  the  form  of  an  image 
wreathed  in  serpents,  which  in  America  are  nearly 
always  symbolical  of  water. 

The  Lost  Island 

A  strange  legend  is  recounted  of  this  lake-goddess. 
She  was  chiefly  worshipped  as  the  giver  of  rain,  but 
Huaina  Ccapac,  who  had  modern  ideas  and  journeyed 
through  the  country  casting  down  huacasy  had  deter- 
mined to  raise  on  an  island  of  Lake  Titicaca  a  temple 
to  Yatiri  (The  Ruler),  the  Aymara  name  of  the  god 
Pachacamac  in  his  form  of  Pachayachachic.  He  com- 
menced by  raising  the  new  shrine  on  the  island  of 
Titicaca  itself.  But  the  deity  when  called  upon  refused 
to  vouchsafe  any  reply  to  his  worshippers  or  priests. 
Huaina  then  commanded  that  the  shrine  should  be 
transferred  to  the  island  of  Apinguela.  But  the  same 
thing  happened  there.  He  then  inaugurated  a  temple 
on  the  island  of  Paapiti,  and  lavished  upon  it  many 
sacrifices  of  llamas,  children,  and  precious  metals.  But 
the  offended  tutelary  goddess  of  the  lake,  irritated 
beyond  endurance  by  this  invasion  of  her  ancient 
domain,  lashed  the  watery  waste  into  such  a  frenzy  of 
storm  that  the  island  and  the  shrine  which  covered  it 
disappeared  beneath  the  waves  and  were  never  thereafter 
beheld  by  mortal  eye. 

The  Thunder-God  of  Peru 

The  rain-and-thunder  god  of  Peru  was  worshipped 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  under  various  names. 
Among  the  Collao  he  was  known  as  Con,  and  in  that 
part  of  the  Inca  dominions  now  known  as  Bolivia  he 
was  called  Churoquella.  Near  the  cordilleras  of  the 
coast  he  was  probably  known  as  Pariacaca,  who  expelled 

299 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

the  huaca  of  the  district  by  dreadful  tempests,  hurling 
rain  and  hail  at  him  for  three  days  and  nights  in  such 
quantities  as  to  form  the  great  lake  of  Pariacaca. 
Burnt  llamas  were  offered  to  him.  But  the  Incas, 
discontented  with  this  local  worship,  which  by  no 
means  suited  their  system  of  central  government, 
determined  to  create  one  thunder-deity  to  whom  all 
the  tribes  in  the  empire  must  bow  as  the  only  god  of 
his  class.  We  are  not  aware  what  his  name  was,  but 
we  know  from  mythological  evidence  that  he  was  a 
mixture  of  all  the  other  gods  of  thunder  in  the 
Peruvian  Empire,  first  because  he  invariably  occupied 
the  third  place  in  the  triad  of  greater  deities,  the 
creator,  sun,  and  thunder,  all  of  whom  were  more  or 
less  amalgamations  of  provincial  and  metropolitan  gods, 
and  secondly  because  a  great  image  of  him  was  erected 
in  the  Coricancha  at  Cuzco,  in  which  he  was  repre- 
sented in  human  form,  wearing  a  headdress  which 
concealed  his  face,  symbolic  of  the  clouds,  which  ever 
veil  the  thunder-god's  head.  He  had  a  special  temple 
of  his  own,  moreover,  and  was  assigned  a  share  in  the 
sacred  lands  by  the  Inca  Pachacutic.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  a  figure  of  his  sister,  who  carried  jars  of  water. 
An  unknown  Quichuan  poet  composed  on  the  myth 
the  following  graceful  little  poem,  which  was  translated 
by  the  late  Daniel  Garrison  Brinton,  an  enthusiastic 
Americanist  and  professor  of  American  archaeology  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  : 

Bounteous  Princess, 
Lo,  thy  brother 
Breaks  thy  vessel 
Now  in  fragments. 
From  the  blow  come 
Thunder,  lightning, 
Strokes  of  lightning  ; 
300 


THE  THUNDER-GOD  OF  PERU 

And  thou,  Princess, 
Tak'it  the  water, 
With  it  rainest, 
And  the  hail  or 
Snow  dispenses!, 
Viracocha, 
World-c  on  structor . 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  translator  here  employs 
the  name  Viracocha  as  if  it  were  that  of  the  deity.  But 
it  was  merely  a  general  expression  in  use  for  a  more 
than  usually  sacred  being.  Brinton,  commenting  upon 
the  legend,  says  :  "  In  this  pretty  waif  that  has  floated 
down  to  us  from  the  wreck  of  a  literature  now  for  ever 
lost  there  is  more  than  one  point  to  attract  the  notice 
of  the  antiquary.  He  may  find  in  it  a  hint  to  decipher 
those  names  of  divinities  so  common  in  Peruvian 
legends,  Contici  and  Illatici.  Both  mean  *the  Thunder 
Vase,'  and  both  doubtless  refer  to  the  conception  here 
displayed  of  the  phenomena  of  the  thunderstorm." 
Alluding  to  Peruvian  thunder-myth  elsewhere,  he  says 
in  an  illuminating  passage  :  "Throughout  the  realms 
of  the  Incas  the  Peruvians  venerated  as  maker  of  all 
things  and  ruler  of  the  firmament  the  god  Ataguju. 
The  legend  was  that  from  him  proceeded  the  first  01 
mortals,  the  man  Guamansuri,  who  descended  to  the 
earth  and  there  wedded  the  sister  of  certain  Guachi- 
mines,  rayless  ones  or  Darklings,  who  then  possessed 
it.  They  destroyed  him,  but  their  sister  gave  birth  to 
twin  sons,  Apocatequil  and  Piguerao.  The  former  was 
the  more  powerful.  By  touching  the  corpse  of  his 
mother  he  brought  her  to  life,  he  drove  off  and  slew 
the  Guachimines,  and,  directed  by  Ataguju,  released  the 
race  of  Indians  from  the  soil  by  turning  it  up  with  a 
spade  of  gold.  For  this  reason  they  adored  him  as  their 
maker.  He  it  was,  they  thought,  who  produced  the 

301 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

thunder  and  the  lightning  by  hurling  stones  with  his 
sling.  And  the  thunderbolts  that  fall,  said  they,  are  his 
children.  Few  villages  were  willing  to  be  without  one 
or  more  of  these.  They  were  in  appearance  small, 
round  stones,  but  had  the  admirable  properties  of 
securing  fertility  to  the  fields,  protecting  from  lightning, 
and,  by  a  transition  easy  to  understand,  were  also  adored 
as  gods  of  fire  as  well  material  as  of  the  passions, 
and  were  capable  of  kindling  the  dangerous  flames  of 
desire  in  the  most  frigid  bosoms.  Therefore  they  were 
in  great  esteem  as  love-charms.  Apocatequil's  statue 
was  erected  on  the  mountains,  with  that  of  his  mother 
on  one  haryi  and  his  brother  on  the  other.  f  He  was 
Prince  of  Evil,  and  the  most  respected  god  of  the 
Peruvians.  From  Quito  to  Cuzco  not  an  Indian  but 
would  give  all  he  possessed  to  conciliate  him.  Five 
priests,  two  stewards,  and  a  crowd  of  slaves  served  his 
image.  And  his  chief  temple  was  surrounded  by  a  very 
considerable  village,  whose  inhabitants  had  no  other 
occupation  but  to  wait  on  him.' '  In  memory  of  these 
brothers  twins  in  Peru  were  always  deemed  sacred  to 
the  lightning. 

There  is  an  instance  on  record  of  how  the  huillca 
could  refuse  on  occasion  to  recognise  even  royalty 
itself.  Manco,  the  Inca  who  had  been  given  the 
kingly  power  by  Pizarro,  offered  a  sacrifice  to  one  of 
these  oracular  shrines.  The  oracle  refused  to  recognise 
him,  through  the  medium  of  its  guardian  priest,  stating 
that  Manco  was  not  the  rightful  Inca.  Manco  there- 
fore caused  the  oracle,  which  was  in  the  shape  of  a  rock, 
to  be  thrown  down,  whereupon  its  guardian  spirit 
emerged  in  the  form  of  a  parrot  and  flew  away.  It  is 
probable  that  the  bird  thus  liberated  had  been  taught  by 
the  priests  to  answer  to  the  questions  of  those  who 
came  to  consult  the  shrine.  But  we  learn  that  on 
302 


PERUVIAN  CREATION-STORIES 

Manco  commanding  that  the  parrot  should  be  pursued 
it  sought  another  rock,  which  opened  to  receive  it, 
and  the  spirit  of  the  huilka  was  transferred  to  this  new 
abode. 

The  Great  God  Pachacamac 

Later  Peruvian  mythology  recognised  only  three  gods 
of  the  first  rank,  the  earth,  the  thunder,  and  the  creative 
agency.  Pachacamac,  the  great  spirit  of  earth,  derived 
his  name  from  a  word  pacha,  which  may  be  best  trans- 
lated as  "things."  In  its  sense  of  visible  things  it  is 
equivalent  to  "  world,"  applied  to  things  which  happen 
in  succession  it  denotes  "time,"  and  to  things  con- 
nected with  persons  "property,"  especially  clothes. 
The  world  of  visible  things  is  thus  Mamapacha  (Earth- 
Mother),  under  which  name  the  ancient  Peruvians 
worshipped  the  earth.  Pachacamac,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  not  the  earth  itself,  the  soil,  but  the  spirit  which 
animates  all  things  that  emerge  therefrom.  From  him 
proceed  the  spirits  of  the  plants  and  animals  which 
come  from  the  earth.  Pachamama  is  the  mother- 
spirit  of  the  mountains,  rocks,  and  plains,  Pachacamac 
the  father-spirit  of  the  grain-bearing  plants,  animals, 
birds,  and  man.  In  some  localities  Pachacamac  and 
Pachamama  were  worshipped  as  divine  mates.  Possibly 
this  practice  was  universal  in  early  times,  gradually 
lapsing  into  desuetude  in  later  days.  Pachamama  was 
in  another  phase  intended  to  denote  the  land  imme- 
diately contiguous  to  a  settlement,  on  which  the  inhabi- 
tants depended  for  their  food-supply. 

Peruvian  Creation-Stories 

It  is  easy  to  see  how  such  a  conception  as  Pacha- 
camac, the  spirit  of  animated  nature,  would  become  one 
with  the  idea  of  a  universal  or  even  a  partial  creator. 

303 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

That  there  was  a  pre-existing  conception  of  a  creative 
agency  can  be  proved  from  the  existence  of  the  Peruvian 
name  Conticsi-viracocha  (He  who  gives  Origin,  or 
Beginning).  This  conception  and  that  of  Pachacamac 
must  at  some  comparatively  early  period  have  clashed, 
and  been  amalgamated  probably  with  ease  when  it 
was  seen  how  nearly  akin  were  the  two  ideas.  Indeed, 
Pachacamac  was  alternatively  known  as  Pacharurac,  the 
"maker"  of  all  things — sure  proof  of  his  amalgama- 
tion with  the  conception  of  the  creative  agency.  As 
such  he  had  his  symbol  in  the  great  Coricancha 
at  Cuzco,  an  oval  plate  of  gold,  suspended  between 
those  of  the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  placed  verti- 
cally, it  may  be  hazarded  with  some  probability, 
to  represent  in  symbol  that  universal  matrix  from 
which  emanated  all  things.  Elsewhere  in  Cuzco  the 
creator  was  represented  by  a  stone  statue  in  human 
form. 

Pachayachachic 

In  later  Inca  days  this  idea  of  a  creator  assumed  that 
of  a  direct  ruler  of  the  universe,  known  as  Pachaya- 
chachic. This  change  was  probably  due  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Inca  Pachacutic,  who  is  known  to  have 
made  several  other  doctrinal  innovations  in  Peruvian 
theology.  He  commanded  a  great  new  temple  to  the 
creator-god  to  be  built  at  the  north  angle  of  the  city  of 
Cuzco,  in  which  he  placed  a  statue  of  pure  gold,  of  the 
size  of  a  boy  of  ten  years  of  age.  The  small  size  was 
to  facilitate  its  removal,  as  Peruvian  worship  was  nearly 
always  carried  out  in  the  open  air.  In  form  it  represented 
a  man  with  his  right  arm  elevated,  the  hand  partially 
closed  and  the  forefinger  and  thumb  raised,  as  if 
in  the  act  of  uttering  the  creative  word.  To  this 
god  large  possessions  and  revenues  were  assigned,  for 
304 


PACARI  TAMPU 

previously  service  rendered  to  him  had  been  voluntary 
only. 

Ideas  of  Creation 

It  is  from  aboriginal  sources  as  preserved  by  the  first 
Spanish  colonists  that  we  glean  our  knowledge  of  what 
the  Incas  believed  the  creative  process  to  consist.  By 
means  of  his  word  (nisca)  the  creator,  a  spirit,  powerful 
and  opulent,  made  all  things.  We  are  provided  with 
the  formulae  of  his  very  words  by  the  Peruvian  prayers 
still  extant  :  "  Let  earth  and  heaven  be,"  "  Let  a  man 
be  ;  let  a  woman  be,"  "  Let  there  be  day,"  "  Let  there 
be  night,"  "  Let  the  light  shine."  The  sun  is  here 
regarded  as  the  creative  agency,  and  the  ruling  caste  as 
the  objects  of  a  special  act  of  creation. 

Pacari  Tampu 

Pacari  Tampu  (House  of  the  Dawn)  was  the  place 
of  origin,  according  to  the  later  Inca  theology,  of  four 
brothers  and  sisters  who  initiated  the  four  Peruvian 
systems  of  worship.  The  eldest  climbed  a  neighbour- 
ing mountain,  and  cast  stones  to  the  four  points  of  the 
compass,  thus  indicating  that  he  claimed  all  the  land 
within  sight.  But  his  youngest  brother  succeeded  in 
enticing  him  into  a  cave,  which  he  sealed  up  with  a 
great  stone,  thus  imprisoning  him  for  ever.  He  next 
persuaded  his  second  brother  to  ascend  a  lofty  moun- 
tain, from  which  he  cast  him,  changing  him  into  a  stone 
in  his  descent.  On  beholding  the  fate  of  his  brethren 
the  third  member  of  the  quartette  fled.  It  is  obvious 
that  we  have  here  a  legend  concocted  by  the  later  Inca 
priesthood  to  account  for  the  evolution  of  Peruvian 
religion  in  its  different  stages.  The  first  brother  would 
appear  to  represent  the  oldest  religion  in  Peru,  that  of 
the  paccariscas,  the  second  that  of  a  fetishistic  stone- 

u  305 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

worship,  the  third  perhaps  that  of  Viracocha,  and  the 
last  sun-worship  pure  and  simple.  There  was,  how- 
ever, an  "  official "  legend,  which  stated  that  the  sun 
had  three  sons,  Viracocha,  Pachacamac,  and  Manco 
Ccapac.  To  the  last  the  dominion  of  mankind  was 
given,  whilst  the  others  were  concerned  with  the 
workings  of  the  universe.  This  politic  arrangement 
placed  all  the  power,  temporal  and  spiritual,  in  the 
hands  of  the  reputed  descendants  of  Manco  Ccapac — 
the  Incas. 

Worship  of  the  Sea 

The  ancient  Peruvians  worshipped  the  sea  as  well  as 
the  earth,  the  folk  inland  regarding  it  as  a  menacing 
deity,  whilst  the  people  of  the  coast  reverenced  it  as  a 
god  of  benevolence,  calling  it  Mama-cocha,  or  Mother- 
sea,  as  it  yielded  them  subsistence  in  the  form  of  fish, 
on  which  they  chiefly  lived.  They  worshipped  the 
whale,  fairly  common  on  that  coast,  because  of  its 
enormous  size,  and  various  districts  regarded  with 
adoration  the  species  of  fish  most  abundant  there.  This 
worship  can  have  partaken  in  no  sense  of  the  nature  of 
totemism,  as  the  system  forbade  that  the  totem  animal 
should  be  eaten.  It  was  imagined  that  the  prototype 
of  each  variety  of  fish  dwelt  in  the  upper  world, 
just  as  many  tribes  of  North  American  Indians  believe 
that  the  eponymous  ancestors  of  certain  animals  dwell 
at  the  four  points  of  the  compass  or  in  the  sky  above 
them.  This  great  fish-god  engendered  the  others  of 
his  species,  and  sent  them  into  the  waters  of  the  deep 
that  they  might  exist  there  until  taken  for  the  use  of 
man.  Birds,  too,  had  their  eponymous  counterparts 
among  the  stars,  as  had  animals.  Indeed,  among  many 
of  the  South  American  races,  ancient  and  modern,  the 
constellations  were  called  after  certain  beasts  and  birds. 
506 


SUN-WORSHIP  IN  PERU. 

Viracocha 

The  Aymara-Quichua  race  worshipped  Viracocha  as 
a  great  culture  hero.  They  did  not  offer  him  sacrifices 
or  tribute,  as  they  thought  that  he,  being  creator  and 
possessor  of  all  things,  needed  nothing  from  men,  so 
they  only  gave  him  worship.  After  him  they  idol- 
ised the  sun.  They  believed,  indeed,  that  Viracocha 
had  made  both  sun  and  moon,  after  emerging  from 
Lake  Titicaca,  and  that  then  he  made  the  earth  and 
peopled  it.  On  his  travels  westward  from  the  lake  he 
was  sometimes  assailed  by  men,  but  he  revenged  him- 
self by  sending  terrible  storms  upon  them  and  destroy- 
ing their  property,  so  they  humbled  themselves  and 
acknowledged  him  as  their  lord.  He  forgave  them 
and  taught  them  everything,  obtaining  from  them  the 
name  of  Pachayachachic.  In  the  end  he  disappeared 
in  the  western  ocean.  He  either  created  or  there  were 
born  with  him  four  beings  who,  according  to  mythical 
beliefs,  civilised  Peru.  To  them  he  assigned  the  four 
quarters  of -the  earth,  and  they  are  thus  known  as  the 
four  winds,  north,  south,  east,  and  west.  One  legend 
avers  they  came  from  the  cave  Pacari,  the  Lodging  of 
the  Dawn. 

Sun*"Worship  in  Peru 

The  name  "  Inca "  means  "  People  of  the  Sun," 
which  luminary  the  Incas  regarded  as  their  creator. 
But  they  did  not  worship  him  totemically — that  is, 
they  did  not  claim  him  as  a  progenitor,  although  they 
regarded  him  as  possessing  the  attributes  of  a  man. 
And  here  we  may  observe  a  difference  between  Mexican 
and  Peruvian  sun-worship.  For  whereas  the  Nahua 
primarily  regarded  the  orb  as  the  abode  of  the  Man  of 
the  Sun,  who  came  to  earth  in  the  shape  of  Quetzal- 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

coatl,  the  Peruvians  looked  upon  the  sun  itself  as  the 
deity.  The  Inca  race  did  not  identify  their  ancestors  as 
children  of  the  sun  until  a  comparatively  late  date. 
Sun-worship  was  introduced  by  the  Inca  Pachacutic, 
who  averred  that  the  sun  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream 
and  addressed  him  as  his  child.  Until  that  time  the 
worship  of  the  sun  had  always  been  strictly  subordi- 
nated to  that  of  the  creator,  and  the  deity  appeared 
only  as  second  in  the  trinity  of  creator,  sun,  and 
thunder.  But  permanent  provision  was  made  for 
sacrifices  to  the  sun  before  the  other  deities  were  so 
recognised,  and  as  the  conquests  of  the  Incas  grew 
wider  and  that  provision  extended  to  the  new  territories 
they  came  to  be  known  as  "the  Lands  of  the  Sun," 
the  natives  observing  the  dedication  of  a  part  of  the 
country  to  the  luminary,  and  concluding  therefrom 
that  it  applied  to  the  whole.  The  material  reality  of 
the  sun  would  enormously  assist  his  cult  among  a 
people  who  were  too  barbarous  to  appreciate  an  unseen 
god,  and  this  colonial  conception  reacting  upon  the 
mother-land  would  undoubtedly  inspire  the  military 
class  with  a  resolve  to  strengthen  a  worship  so  popular 
in  the  conquered  provinces,  and  of  which  they  were  in 
great  measure  the  protagonists  and  missionaries. 

The  Sun's  Possessions 

In  every  Peruvian  village  the  sun  had  considerable 
possessions.  His  estates  resembled  those  of  a  terri- 
torial chieftain,  and  consisted  of  a  dwelling-house,  a 
chacra,  or  portion  of  land,  flocks  of  llamas  and  pacos, 
and  a  number  of  women  dedicated  to  his  service.  The 
cultivation  of  the  soil  within  the  solar  enclosure  de- 
volved upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring 
village,  the  produce  of  their  toil  being  stored  in  the 
inti-huasi,  or  sun's  house.  The  Women  of  the  Sun 
308 


INCA  OCCUPATION  OF  TITICACA 

prepared  the  daily  food  and  drink  of  the  luminary, 
which  consisted  of  maize  and  chicha.  They  also 
spun  wool  and  wove  it  into  fine  stuff,  which  was  burned 
in  order  that  it  might  ascend  to  the  celestial  regions, 
where  the  deity  could  make  use  of  it.  Each  village 
reserved  a  portion  of  its  solar  produce  for  the  great 
festival  at  Cuzco,  and  it  was  carried  thither  on  the 
backs  of  llamas  which  were  destined  for  sacrifice. 

Inca  Occupation  of  Titicaca 

The  Rock  of  Titicaca,  the  renowned   place  of  the 
sun's  origin,  naturally  became  an  important  centre  of 
his  worship.     The  date  at  which  the  worship  of  the 
sun  originated  at  this  famous  rock  is  extremely  remote, 
but  we  may  safely  assume  that  it  was  long  before  the 
conquest  of  the  Collao  by  the  Apu-Ccapac-Inca  Pacha- 
cutic,  and  that  reverence  for  the  luminary  as  a  war-god  by 
the  Colla  chiefs  was  noticed  by  Tupac,  who  in  suppress- 
ing the  revolt  concluded  that  the  local  observance  at 
the  rock  had  some  relationship  to  the  disturbance.     It 
is,  however,  certain  that  Tupac  proceeded  after  the  re- 
conquest   to  establish   at  this  natural  centre  of  sun- 
worship  solar  rites  on  a  new  basis,  with  the  evident 
intention  of  securing  on  behalf  of  the  Incas  of  Cuzco 
such  exclusive  benefit  as  might  accrue  from  the  complete 
possession  of  the  sun's  paccarisca.    According  to  a  native 
account,  a  venerable  colla  (or  hermit),  consecrated  to 
the  service  of  the  sun,  had  proceeded  on  foot  from 
Titicaca  to  Cuzco  for  the  purpose  of  commending  this 
ancient  seat  of  sun-worship  to  the  notice  of  Tupac. 
The    consequence   was   that    Apu-Ccapac-Inca,    after 
visiting  the  island  and  inquiring  into  the  ancient  local 
customs,  re-established  them  in  a  more  regular  form. 
His  accounts  can  hardly  be  accepted  in  face  of  the  facts 
which   have   been  gathered.     Rather  did  it  naturally 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

follow  that  Titicaca  became  subservient  to  Tupac  after 
the  revolt  of  the  Collao  had  been  quelled.  Henceforth 
the  worship  of  the  sun  at  the  place  of  his  origin  was 
entrusted  to  Incas  resident  in  the  place,  and  was  cele- 
brated with  Inca  rites.  The  island  was  converted  into 
a  solar  estate  and  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  removed. 
The  land  was  cultivated  and  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
levelled,  maize  was  sown  and  the  soil  consecrated,  the 
grain  being  regarded  as  the  gift  of  the  sun.  This  work 
produced  considerable  change  in  the  island.  Where 
once  was  waste  and  idleness  there  was  now  fertility 
and  industry.  The  harvests  were  skilfully  apportioned, 
so  much  being  reserved  for  sacrificial  purposes,  the 
remainder  being  sent  to  Cuzco,  partly  to  be  sown  in 
the  chacras,  or  estates  of  the  sun,  throughout  Peru, 
partly  to  be  preserved  in  the  granary  of  the  Inca  and 
the  huacas  as  a  symbol  that  there  would  be  abundant 
crops  in  the  future  and  that  the  grain  already  stored 
would  be  preserved.  A  building  of  the  Women 
of  the  Sun  was  erected  about  a  mile  from  the  rock, 
so  that  the  produce  might  be  available  for  sacrifices. 
For  their  maintenance,  tribute  of  potatoes,  ocas,  and 
quinua  was  levied  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  villages 
on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  and  of  maize  upon  the  people 
of  the  neighbouring  valleys. 

Pilgrimages  to  Titicaca 

Titicaca  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  was  probably 
more  frequented  than  Pachacamac  itself.  These  two 
places  were  held  to  be  the  cardinal  shrines  of  the  two 
great  huacas,  the  creator  and  the  sun  respectively.  A 
special  reason  for  pilgrimage  to  Titicaca  was  to  sacrifice 
to  the  sun,  as  the  source  of  physical  energy  and  the 
giver  of  long  life  ;  and  he  was  especially  worshipped 
by  the  aged,  who  believed  he  had  preserved  their  lives. 
310 


SACRIFICES  TO  THE  NEW  SUN 

Then  followed  the  migration  of  pilgrims  to  Titicaca, 
for  whose  shelter  houses  were  built  at  Capacahuana, 
and  large  stores  of  maize  were  provided  for  their  use. 
The  ceremonial  connected  with  the  sacred  rites  of  the 
rock  was  rigorously  observed.     The  pilgrim  ere  em- 
barking on  the  raft  which  conveyed  him  to  the  island 
must  first  confess  his  sins  to  a  huillac  (a  speaker  to  an 
object   of  worship) ;    then    further   confessions   were 
required  at  each  of  the  three  sculptured  doors  which 
had  successively  to  be  passed  before  reaching  the  sacred 
rock.     The  first  door  (Puma-puncu)  was  surmounted 
by  the  figure  of  a  puma  ;  the  others  (Quenti-puncu  and 
Pillco-puncu)  were   ornamented  with  feathers  of  the 
different  species  of  birds  commonly  sacrificed  to  the 
sun.      Having   passed   the   last   portal,  the   traveller 
beheld  at  a  distance  of  two  hundred  paces  the  sacred 
rock  itself,  the  summit  glittering  with  gold-leaf.     He 
was  permitted  to  proceed  no  further,   for   only   the 
officials  were  allowed  entry  into  it.     The  pilgrim  on 
departing  received  a  few  grains  of  the  sacred  maize  grown 
on  the  island.    These  he  kept  with  care  and  placed  with 
his  own  store,  believing  they  would  preserve  his  stock, 
The  confidence  the  Indian  placed  in  the  virtue  of  the 
Titicaca  maize  may  be  judged  from  the  prevalent  belief 
that  the  possessor  of  a  single  grain  would  not  suffer 
from  starvation  during  the  whole  of  his  life. 

Sacrifices  to  the  New  Sun 

The  Intip-Raymi,  or  Great  Festival  of  the  Sun,  was 
celebrated  by  the  Incas  at  Cuzco  at  the  winter  solstice. 
In  connection  with  it  the  Tarpuntaita-cuma,  or  sacri- 
ficing Incas,  were  charged  with  a  remarkable  duty,  the 
worshippers  journeying  eastward  to  meet  one  of  these 
functionaries  on  his  way.  On  the  principal  hill-tops 
between  Cuzco  and  Huillcanuta,  on  the  road  to  the 

3" 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

rock  of  Titicaca,  burnt  offerings  of  llamas,  coca,  and 
maize  were  made  at  the  feast  to  greet  the  arrival  of 
the  young  sun  from  his  ancient  birthplace.  Molina 
has  enumerated  more  than  twenty  of  these  places  or 
sacrifice.  The  striking  picture  of  the  celebration  of 
the  solar  sacrifice  on  these  bleak  mountains  in  the 
depth  of  the  Peruvian  winter  has,  it  seems,  no  parallel  in 
the  religious  rites  of  the  ancient  Americans.  Quitting 
their  thatched  houses  at  early  dawn,  the  worshippers  left 
the  valley  below,  carrying  the  sacrificial  knife  and  brazier, 
and  conducting  the  white  llama,  heavily  laden  with 
fuel,  maize,  and  coca  leaves,  wrapped  in  fine  cloth,  to 
the  spot  where  the  sacrifice  was  to  be  made.  When 
sunrise  appeared  the  pile  was  lighted.  The  victim 
was  slain  and  thrown  upon  it.  The  scene  then  pre- 
sented, a  striking  contrast  to  the  bleak  surrounding 
wilderness.  As  the  flames  grew  in  strength  and  the 
smoke  rose  higher  and  thicker  the  clear  atmosphere 
was  gradually  illuminated  from  the  east.  When  the 
sun  advanced  above  the  horizon  the  sacrifice  was  at  its 
height.  But  for  the  crackling  of  the  flames  and  the 
murmur  of  a  babbling  stream  on  its  way  down  the  hill 
to  join  the  river  below,  the  silence  had  hitherto  been 
unbroken.  As  the  sun  roSe  the  Incas  marched  slowly 
round  the  burning  mass,  plucking  the  wool  from  the 
scorched  carcase,  and  chanting  monotonously  :  "  O 
Creator,  Sun  and  Thunder,  be  for  ever  young ! 
Multiply  the  people  ;  let  them  ever  be  in  peace  ! " 

The  Citoc  Raymi 

The  most  picturesque  if  not  the  most  important 
solar  festival  was  that  of  the  Citoc  Raymi  (Gradually 
Increasing  Sun),  held  in  June,  when  nine  days  were 
given  up  to  the  ceremonial.  A  rigorous  fast  was  observed 
for  three  days  previous  to  the  event,  during  which  no 


Conducting  the  White  Llama  to  the  Sacrifice 

William  Sewell 


312 


HUMAN  SACRIFICE  IN  PERU 

fire  must  be  kindled.  On  the  fourth  day  the  Inca, 
accompanied  by  the  people  en  masse,  proceeded  to  the 
great  square  of  Cuzco  to  hail  the  rising  sun,  which  they 
awaited  in  silence.  On  its  appearance  they  greeted  it 
with  a  joyous  tumult,  and,  joining  in  procession, 
marched  to  the  Golden  Temple  of  the  Sun,  where 
llamas  were  sacrificed,  and  a  new  fire  was  kindled  by 
means  of  an  arched  mirror,  followed  by  sacrificial  offer- 
ings of  grain,  flowers,  animals,  and  aromatic  gums. 
This  festival  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  all  the  seasonal 
celebrations.  The  Inca  calendar  was  purely  agricultural 
in  its  basis,  and  marked  in  its  great  festivals  the  renewal 
or  abandonment  of  the  labours  of  the  field.  Its  astro- 
nomical observations  were  not  more  advanced  than 
those  of  the  calendars  of  many  American  races  other- 
wise inferior  in  civilisation. 

Human  Sacrifice  in  Peru 

Writers  ignorant  of  their  subject  have  often  dwelt 
upon  the  absence  of  human  sacrifice  in  ancient  Peru, 
and  have  not  hesitated  to  draw  comparisons  between 
Mexico  and  the  empire  of  the  Incas  in  this  respect, 
usually  not  complimentary  to  the  former.  Such 
statements  are  contradicted  by  the  clearest  evidence. 
Human  sacrifice  was  certainly  not  nearly  so  prevalent 
in  Peru,  but  that  it  was  regular  and  by  no  means  rare 
is  well  authenticated.  Female  victims  to  the  sun  were 
taken  from  the  great  class  of  Acllacuna  (Selected  Ones), 
a  general  tribute  of  female  children  regularly  levied 
throughout  the  Inca  Empire.  Beautiful  girls  were 
taken  from  their  parents  at  the  age  of  eight  by  the 
Inca  officials,  and  were  handed  over  to  certain  female 
trainers  called  mamacuna  (mothers).  These  matrons 
systematically  trained  their  prottgdes  in  housewifery 
and  ritual.  Residences  or  convents  called  aclla-huasi 

3'3 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
(houses  of  the  Selected)  were  provided  for  them  in  the 
principal  cities. 

Methods  of  Medicine-Men 

A  quaint  account  of  the  methods  of  the  medicine- 
men of  the  Indians  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  probably 
illustrates  the  manner  in  which  the  superstitions  of  a 
barbarian  people  evolve  into  a  more  stately  ritual. 

"  It  cannot  be  denied,"  it  states,  "  that  the  mohanes 
[priests]  have,  by  practice  and  tradition,  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  many  plants  and  poisons,  with  which 
they  effect  surprising  cures  on  the  one  hand,  and  do 
much  mischief  on  the  other,  but  the  mania  of  ascribing 
the  whole  to  a  preternatural  virtue  occasions  them  to 
blend  with  their  practice  a  thousand  charms  and  super- 
stitions. The  most  customary  method  of  cure  is  to 
place  two  hammocks  close  to  each  other,  either  in  the 
dwelling,  or  in  the  open  air :  in  one  of  them  the 
patient  lies  extended,  and  in  the  other  the  mohane,  or 
agorero.  The  latter,  in  contact  with  the  sick  man, 
begins  by  rocking  himself,  and  then  proceeds,  by  a 
strain  in  falsetto,  to  call  on  the  birds,  quadrupeds,  and 
fishes  to  give  health  to  the  patient.  From  time  to 
time  he  rises  on  his  seat,  and  makes  a  thousand  ex- 
travagant gestures  over  the  sick  man,  to  whom  he 
applies  his  powders  and  herbs,  or  sucks  the  wounded 
or  diseased  parts.  If  the  malady  augments,  the 
agorero,  having  been  joined  by  many  of  the  people, 
chants  a  short  hymn,  addressed  to  the  soul  of  the 
patient,  with  this  burden :  *  Thou  must  not  go,  thou  must 
not  go.*  In  repeating  this  he  is  joined  by  the  people, 
until  at  length  a  terrible  clamour  is  raised,  and  augmented 
in  proportion  as  the  sick  man  becomes  still  fainter  and 
fainter,  to  the  end  that  it  may  reach  his  ears.  When 
all  the  charms  are  unavailing,  and  death  approaches, 
3*4 


DEATH  BY  SUFFOCATION 

the  mohane  leaps  from  his  hammock,  and  betakes  him- 
self to  flight,  amid  the  multitude  of  sticks,  stones,  and 
clods  of  earth  which  are  showered  on  him.  Successively 
all  those  who  belong  to  the  nation  assemble,  and, 
dividing  themselves  into  bands,  each  of  them  (if  he 
who  is  in  his  last  agonies  is  a  warrior)  approaches  him, 
saying  :  *  Whither  goest  thou  ?  Why  dost  thou  leave 
us  ?  With  whom  shall  we  proceed  to  the  aucas  [the 
enemies]  ? '  They  then  relate  to  him  the  heroicai  deeds 
he  has  performed,  the  number  of  those  he  has  slain, 
and  the  pleasures  he  leaves  behind  him.  This  is 
practised  in  different  tones :  while  some  raise  the 
voice,  it  is  lowered  by  others ;  and  the  poor  sick  man 
is  obliged  to  support  these  importunities  without  a 
murmur,  until  the  first  symptoms  of  approaching  dis- 
solution manifest  themselves.  Then  it  is  that  he  is 
surrounded  by  a  multitude  of  females,  some  of  whom 
forcibly  close  the  mouth  and  eyes,  others  envelop  him 
in  the  hammock,  oppressing  him  with  the  whole  of 
their  weight,  and  causing  him  to  expire  before  his  time, 
and  others,  lastly,  run  to  extinguish  the  candle,  and 
dissipate  the  smoke,  that  the  soul,  not  being  able  to 
perceive  the  hole  through  which  it  may  escape,  may 
remain  entangled  in  the  structure  of  the  roof.  That  this 
may  be  speedily  effected,  and  to  prevent  its  return -to 
the  interior  of  the  dwelling,  they  surround  the  entrances 
with  filth,  by  the  stench  of  which  it  may  be  expelled. 

Death  by  Suffocation 

"  As  soon  as  the  dying  man  is  suffocated  by  the 
closing  of  the  mouth,  nostrils,  &c.,  and  wrapt  up  in 
the  covering  of  his  bed,  the  most  circumspect  Indian, 
whether  male  or  female,  takes  him  in  the  arms  in  the 
best  manner  possible,  and  gives  a  gentle  shriek,  which 
echoes  to  the  bitter  lamentations  of  the  immediate 


•  MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
relatives,  and  to  the  cries  of  a  thousand  old  women 
collected  for  the  occasion.  As  long  as  this  dismal  howl 
subsists,  the  latter  are  subjected  to  a  constant  fatigue, 
raising  the  palm  of  the  hand  to  wipe  away  the  tears, 
and  lowering  it  to  dry  it  on  the  ground.  The  result 
of  this  alternate  action  is,  that  a  circle  of  earth,  which 
gives  them  a  most  hideous  appearance,  is  collected  about 
the  eyelids  and  brows,  and  they  do  not  wash  themselves 
until  the  mourning  is  over.  These  first  clamours  con- 
clude by  several  good  pots  of  masato,  to  assuage  the 
thirst  of  sorrow,  and  the  company  next  proceed  to 
make  a  great  clatter  among  the  utensils  of  the  deceased  : 
some  break  the  kettles,  and  others  the  earthen  pots, 
while  others,  again,  burn  the  apparel,  to  the  end  that 
his  memory  may  be  the  sooner  forgotten.  If  the 
defunct  has  been  a  cacique,  or  powerful  warrior,  his 
exequies  are  performed  after  the  manner  of  the 
Romans  :  they  last  for  many  days,  all  the  people 
weeping  in  concert  for  a  considerable  space  of  time,  at 
daybreak,  at  noon,  in  the  evening,  and  at  midmght. 
When  the  appointed  hour  arrives,  the  mournful  music 
begins  in  front  of  the  house  of  the  wife  and  relatives, 
the  heroical  deeds  of  the  deceased  being  chanted  to  the 
sound  of  instruments.  All  the  inhabitants  of  the 
vicinity  unite  in  chorus  from  within  their  houses,  some 
chirping  like  birds,  others  howling  like  tigers,  and  the 
greater  part  of  them  chattering  like  monkeys,  or 
croaking  like  frogs.  They  constantly  leave  off  by 
having  recourse  to  the  masato,  and  by  the  destruction 
of  whatever  the  deceased  may  have  left  behind  him,  the 
burning  of  his  dwelling  being  that  which  concludes  the 
ceremonies.  Among  some  of  the  Indians,  the  nearest 
relatives  cut  off  their  hair  as  a  token  of  their  grief, 
agreeably  to  the  practice  of  the  Moabites,  and  other 
nations.  .  .  . 
316 


THE  VISION  OF  YUPANQUI 

The  Obsequies  of  a  Chief 

"  On  the  day  of  decease,  they  put  the  body,  with  its 
insignia,  into  a  large  earthen  vessel,  or  painted  jar, 
which  they  bury  in  one  of  the  angles  of  the  quarter, 
laying  over  it  a  covering  of  potter's  clay,  and  throwing 
in  earth  until  the  grave  is  on  a  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  When  the  obsequies  are  over,  they 
forbear  to  pay  a  visit  to  it,  and  lose  every  recollection 
of  the  name  of  the  warrior.  The  Roamaynas  disenterre 
their  dead,  as  soon  as  they  think  that  the  fleshy  parts 
have  been  consumed,  and  having  washed  the  bones 
form  the  skeleton,  which  they  place  in  a  coffin  of  potter's 
clay,  adorned  with  various  symbols  of  death,  like  the 
hieroglyphics  on  the  wrappers  of  the  Egyptian  mum- 
mies. In  this  state  the  skeleton  is  carried  home,  to 
the  end  that  the  survivors  may  bear  the  deceased  in 
respectful  memory,  and  not  in  imitation  of  those  extra- 
ordinary voluptuaries  of  antiquity,  who  introduced  into 
their  most  splendid  festivals  a  spectacle  of  this  nature, 
which,  by  reminding  them  of  their  dissolution,  might 
stimulate  them  to  taste,  before  it  should  overtake  them, 
all  the  impure  pleasures  the  human  passions  could  afford 
them.  A  space  of  time  of  about  a  year  being  elapsed, 
the  bones  are  once  more  inhumed,  and  the  individual 
to  whom  they  belonged  forgotten  for  ever."  1 

Peruvian  Myths 

Peru  is  not  so  rich  in  myths  as  Mexico,  but  the 
following  legends  well  illustrate  the  mythological  ideas 
of  the  Inca  race  : 

The  Vision  of  Yupanqui 

The  Inca  Yupanqui  before  he  succeeded  to  the 
sovereignty  is  said  to  have  gone  to  visit  his  father, 

1  Skinner,  State  of  Peru,  pp.  271  et  seq. 

317 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Viracocha  Inca.  On  his  way  he  arrived  at  a  fountain 
called  Susur-pugaio.  There  he  saw  a  piece  of  crystal 
fall  into  the  fountain,  and  in  this  crystal  he  saw  the 
figure  of  an  Indian,  with  three  bright  rays  as  of  the 
sun  coming  from  the  back  of  his  head.  He  wore  a 
hauM,  or  royal  fringe,  across  the  forehead  like  the  Inca. 
Serpents  wound  round  his  arms  and  over  his  shoulders. 
He  had  ear-pieces  in  his  ears  like  the  Incas,  and  was 
also  dressed  like  them.  There  was  the  head  of  a  lion 
between  his  legs,  and  another  lion  was  about  his 
shoulders.  Inca  Yupanqui  took  fright  at  this  strange 
figure,  and  was  running  away  when  a  voice  called  to 
him  by  name  telling  him  not  to  be  afraid,  because  it 
was  his  father,  the  sun,  whom  he  beheld,  and  that  he 
would  conquer  many  nations,  but  he  must  remember 
his  father  in  his  sacrifices  and  raise  revenues  for  him, 
and  pay  him  great  reverence.  Then  the  figure  vanished, 
but  the  crystal  remained,  and  the  Inca  afterwards  saw 
all  he  wished  in  it.  When  he  became  king  he  had  a 
statue  of  the  sun  made,  resembling  the  figure  as  closely 
as  possible,  and  ordered  all  the  tribes  he  had  conquered 
to  build  splendid  temples  and  worship  the  new  deity 
instead  of  the  creator. 

The  Bird  Bride 

The  Canaris  Indians  arc  named  from  the  province 
of  Canaribamba,  in  Quito,  and  they  have  several  myths 
regarding  their  origin.  One  recounts  that  at  the  deluge 
two  brothers  fled  to  a  very  high  mountain  called 
Huacaquan,  and  as  the  waters  rose  the  hill  ascended 
simultaneously,  so  that  they  escaped  drowning.  When 
the  flood  was  over  they  had  to  find  food  in  the  valleys, 
and  they  built  a  tiny  house  and  lived  on  herbs  and 
roots.  They  were  surprised  one  day  when  they  went 
home  to  find  food  already  prepared  for  them  and  chicha 


"  The  birdlike  beings  were  in  reality  women  "  318 

William  Sewell 


THONAPA 

to  drink.  This  continued  for  ten  days.  Then  the 
elder  brother  decided  to  hide  himself  and  discover  who 
brought  the  food.  Very  soon  two  birds,  one  Aqua,  the 
other  Torito  (otherwise  quacamayo  birds),  appeared 
dressed  as  Canaris,  and  wearing  their  hair  fastened  in 
the  same  way.  The  larger  bird  removed  the  Hicella^ 
or  mantle  the  Indians  wear,  and  the  man  saw  that  they 
had  beautiful  faces  and  discovered  that  the  bird-like 
beings  were  in  reality  women.  When  he  came  out 
the  bird-women  were  very  angry  and  flew  away.  When 
the  younger  brother  came  home  and  found  no  food 
he  was  annoyed,  and  determined  to  hide  until  the 
bird-women  returned.  After  ten  days  the  quacamayos 
appeared  again  on  their  old  mission,  and  while  they 
were  busy  the  watcher  contrived  to  close  the  door,  and  so 
prevented  the  younger  bird  from  escaping.  She  lived 
with  the  brothers  for  a  long  time,  and  became  the  mother 
of  six  sons  and  daughters,  from  whom  all  the  Canaris 
proceed.  Hence  the  tribe  look  upon  the  quacamayo 
birds  with  reverence,  and  use  their  feathers  at  their 
festivals. 

Thonapa 

Some  myths  tell  of  a  divine  personage  called  Thonapa, 
who  appears  to  have  been  a  hero-god  or  civilising  agent 
like  Quetzalcoatl.  He  seems  to  have  devoted  his  life 
to  preaching  to  the  people  in  the  various  villages,  be- 
ginning in  the  provinces  of  Colla-suya.  When  he  came 
to  Yamquisupa  he  was  treated  so  badly  that  he  would 
not  remain  there.  He  slept  in  the  open  air,  clad  only 
in  a  long  shirt  and  a  mantle,  and  carried  a  book.  He 
cursed  the  village.  It  was  soon  immersed  in  water, 
and  is  now  a  lake.  There  was  an  idol  in  the  form  of 
a  woman  to  which  the  people  offered  sacrifice  at  the 
top  of  a  high  hill,  Cachapucara.  This  idol  Thonapa 

319 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

detested,  so  he  burnt  it,  and  also  destroyed  the  hill. 
On  another  occasion  Thonapa  cursed  a  large  assembly 
of  people  who  were  holding  a  great  banquet  to  cele- 
brate a  wedding,  because  they  refused  to  listen  to  his 
preaching.  They  were  all  changed  into  stones,  which 
are  visible  to  this  day.  Wandering  through  Peru, 
Thonapa  came  to  the  mountain  of  Caravaya,  and  after 
raising  a  very  large  cross  he  put  it  on  his  shoulders 
and  took  it  to  the  hill  Carapucu,  where  he  preached 
so  fervently  that  he  shed  tears.  A  chiefs  daughter 
got  some  of  the  water  on  her  head,  and  the  Indians, 
imagining  that  he  was  washing  his  head  (a  ritual 
offence),  took  him  prisoner  near  the  Lake  of  Carapucu. 
Very  early  the  next  morning  a  beautiful  youth  appeared 
to  Thonapa,  and  told  him  not  to  fear,  for  he  was  sent 
from  the  divine  guardian  who  watched  over  him.  He 
released  Thonapa,  who  escaped,  though  he  was  well 
guarded.  He  went  down  into  the  lake,  his  mantle 
keeping  him  above  the  water  as  a  boat  would  have 
done.  After  Thonapa  had  escaped  from  the*  bar- 
barians he  remained  on  the  rock  of  Titicaca,  afterwards 
going  to  the  town  of  Tiya-manacu,  where  again  he 
cursed  the  people  and  turned  them  into  stones.  They 
were  too  bent  upon  amusement  to  listen  to  his  preach- 
ing. He  then  followed  the  river  Chacamarca  till  it 
reached  the  sea,  and,  like  Quetzalcoatl,  disappeared. 
This  is  good  evidence  that  he  was  a  solar  deity,  or 
"  man  of  the  sun,"  who,  his  civilising  labours  com- 
pleted, betook  himself  to  the  house  of  his  father. 

A  Myth  of  Manco  Ccapac  Inca 

When  Manco  Ccapac  Inca  was  born  a  staff  which  had 
been  given  to  his  father  turned  into  gold.  He  had 
seven  brothers  and  sisters,  and  at  his  father's  death  he 
assembled  all  his  people  in  order  to  see  how  much  he 
320 


A  beautiful  youth  appeared  to  Thonapa  " 
William  Sewell 


320 


CONIRAYA  VIRACOCHA 

could  venture  in  making  fresh  conquests.  He  and  his 
brothers  supplied  themselves  with  rich  clothing,  new 
arms,  and  the  golden  staff  called  tapac-yauri  (royal 
sceptre).  He  had  also  two  cups  of  gold  from  which 
Thonapa  had  drunk,  called  tapacusi.  They  proceeded 
to  the  highest  point  in  the  country,  a  mountain  where 
the  sun  rose,  and  Manco  Ccapac  saw  several  rainbows, 
which  he  interpreted  as  a  sign  of  good  fortune, 
Delighted  with  the  favouring  symbols,  he  sang  the  song 
of  Chamayhuarisca  (The  Song  of  Joy).  Manco  Ccapac 
wondered  why  a  brother  who  had  accompanied  him 
did  not  return,  and  sent  one  of  his  sisters  in  search 
of  him,  but  she  also  did  not  come  back,  so  he  went 
himself,  and  found  both  nearly  dead  beside  a  huaca. 
They  said  they  could  not  move,  as  the  huacay  a  stone, 
retarded  them.  In  a  great  rage  Manco  struck  this 
stone  with  his  tapac-yauri.  It  spoke,  and  said  that  had 
it  not  been  for  his  wonderful  golden  staff  he  would 
have  had  no  power  over  it.  It  added  that  his  brother 
and  sister  had  sinned,  and  therefore  must  remain  with 
it  (the  huaca}  in  the  lower  regions,  but  that  Manco 
was  to  be  "greatly  honoured."  The  sad  fate  of  his 
brother  and  sister  troubled  Manco  exceedingly,  but 
on  going  back  to  the  place  where  he  first  saw  the  rain- 
bows he  got  comfort  from  them  and  strength  to  bear 
his  grief. 

Coniraya  Viracocha 

Coniraya  Viracocha  was  a  tricky  nature  spirit  who 
declared  he  was  the  creator,  but  who  frequently 
appeared  attired  as  a  poor  ragged  Indian.  He  was 
an  adept  at  deceiving  people.  A  beautiful  woman, 
Cavillaca,  who  was  greatly  admired,  was  one  day 
weaving  a  mantle  at  the  foot  of  a  lucma  tree.  Coniraya, 
changing  himself  into  a  beautiful  bird,  climbed  the  tree, 

z  321 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

took  some  of  his  generative  seed,  made  it  into  a  ripe 
tucma,  and  dropped  it  near  the  beautiful  virgin,  who 
saw  and  ate  the  fruit.  Some  time  afterwards  a  son  was 
born  to  Cavillaca.  When  the  child  was  older  she  wished 
that  the  huacas  and  gods  should  meet  and  declare  who 
was  the  father  of  the  boy.  All  dressed  as  finely  as 
possible,  hoping  to  be  chosen  as  her  husband.  Coniraya 
was  there,  dressed  like  a  beggar,  and  Cavillaca  never 
even  looked  at  him.  The  maiden  addressed  the 
assembly,  but  as  no  one  immediately  answered  her 
speech  she  let  the  child  go,  saying  he  would  be  sure 
to  crawl  to  his  father.  The  infant  went  straight  up  to 
Coniraya,  sitting  in  his  rags,  and  laughed  up  to  him. 
Cavillaca,  extremely  angry  at  the  idea  of  being  associated 
with  such  a  poor,  dirty  creature,  fled  to  the  sea- 
shore. Coniraya  then  put  on  magnificent  attire  and 
followed  her  to  show  her  how  handsome  he  was,  but 
still  thinking  of  him  in  his  ragged  condition  she  would 
not  look  back.  She  went  into  the  sea  at  Pachacamac 
and  was  changed  into  a  rock.  Coniraya,  still  following 
her,  met  a  condor,  and  asked  if  it  had  seen  a  woman. 
On  the  condor  replying  that  it  had  seen  her  quite  near, 
Coniraya  blessed  it,  and  said  whoever  killed  it  would  be 
killed  himself.  He  then  met  a  fox,  who  said  he  would 
never  meet  Cavillaca,  so  Coniraya  told  him  he  would 
always  retain  his  disagreeable  odour,  and  on  account  of 
it  he  would  never  be  able  to  go  abroad  except  at  night, 
and  that  he  would  be  hated  by  every  one.  Next  came 
a  lion,  who  told  Coniraya  he  was  very  near  Cavillaca, 
so  the  lover  said  he  should  have  the  power  of  punishing 
wrongdoers,  and  that  whoever  killed  him  would  wear 
the  skin  without  cutting  ofFthe  head,  and  by  preserving 
the  teeth  and  eyes  would  make  him  appear  still  alive  ; 
his  skin  would  be  worn  at  festivals,  and  thus  he  would 
be  honoured  after  death.  Then  another  fox  who  gave 


"  He  sang  the  song  of  Chamayhuarisca 
WiUiam  Sewell 


322 


THE  LLAMA'S  WARNING 

bad  news  was  cursed,  and  a  falcon  who  said  Cavillaca 
was  near  was  told  he  would  be  highly  esteemed,  and 
that  whoever  killed  him  would  also  wear  his  skin  at 
festivals.  The  parrots,  giving  bad  news,  were  to  cry  so 
loud  that  they  would  be  heard  far  away,  and  their  cries 
would  betray  them  to  enemies.  Thus  Coniraya  blessed 
the  animals  which  gave  him  news  he  liked,  and  cursed 
those  which  gave  the  opposite.  When  at  last  he  came 
to  the  sea  he  found  Cavillaca  and  the  child  turned  into 
stone,  and  there  he  encountered  two  beautiful  young 
daughters  of  Pachacamac,  who  guarded  a  great  serpent. 
He  made  love  to  the  elder  sister,  but  the  younger  one 
flew  away  in  the  form  of  a  wild  pigeon.  At  that  time 
there  were  no  fishes  in  the  sea,  but  a  certain  goddess 
had  reared  a  few  in  a  small  pond,  and  Coniraya  emptied 
these  into  the  ocean  and  thus  peopled  it.  The  angry 
deity  tried  to  outwit  Coniraya  and  kill  him,  but  he 
was  too  wise  and  escaped.  He  returned  to  Huarochiri, 
and  played  tricks  as  before  on  the  villagers. 

Coniraya  slightly  approximates  to  the  Jurupari  of 
the  Uapes  Indians  of  Brazil,  especially  as  regards  his 
impish  qualities.1 

The  Llama's  Warning 

An  old  Peruvian  myth  relates  how  the  world  was 
nearly  left  without  an  inhabitant.  A  man  took  his 
llama  to  a  fine  place  for  feeding,  but  the  beast  moaned 
and  would  not  eat,  and  on  its  master  questioning  it,  it 
said  there  was  little  wonder  it  was  sad,  because  in  five 
days  the  sea  would  rise  and  engulf  the  earth.  The 
man,  alarmed,  asked  if  there  was  no  way  of  escape, 
and  the  llama  advised  him  to  go  to  the  top  of  a  high 
mountain,  Villa-coto,  taking  food  for  five  days.  Wher 

1  See  Spence,  article  "  Brazil  "  in  Encyckpdia  of  Religion  and  Ethics 
vol.  ii. 

323 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

they  reached  the  summit  of  the  hill  all  kinds  of  birds 
and  animals  were  already  there.  When  the  sea  rose 
the  water  came  so  near  that  it  washed  the  tail  of  a  fox, 
and  that  is  why  foxes'  tails  are  black !  After  five  days 
the  water  fell,  leaving  only  this  one  man  alive,  and 
from  him  the  Peruvians  believed  the  present  human 
race  to  be  descended. 

The  Myth  of  Huathiacuri 

After  the  deluge  the  Indians  chose  the  bravest  and 
richest  man  as  leader.  This  period  they  called  Purun- 
pacha  (the  time  without  a  king).  On  a  high  moun- 
tain-top appeared  five  large  eggs,  from  one  of  which 
Paricaca,  father  of  Huathiacuri,  later  emerged.  Hua- 
thiacuri, who  was  so  poor  that  he  had  not  means  to 
cook  his  food  properly,  learned  much  wisdom  from 
his  father,  and  the  following  story  shows  how  this 
assisted  him.  A  certain  man  had  built  a  most  curious 
house,  the  roof  being  made  of  yellow  and  red  birds' 
feathers.  He  was  very  rich,  possessing  many  llajnas, 
and  was  greatly  esteemed  on  account  of  his  wealth. 
So  proud  did  he  become  that  he  aspired  to  be  the 
creator  himself;  but  when  he  became  very  ill  and 
could  not  cure  himself  his  divinity  seemed  doubtful. 
Just  at  this  time  Huathiacuri  was  travelling  about,  and 
one  day  he  saw  two  foxes  meet  and  listened  to  their 
conversation.  From  this  he  heard  about  the  rich  man 
and  learned  the  cause  of  his  illness,  and  forthwith  he 
determined  to  go  on  to  find  him.  On  arriving  at  the 
curious  house  he  met  a  lovely  young  girl,  one  of  the 
rich  man's  daughters.  She  told  him  about  her  father's 

O 

illness,  and  Huathiacuri,  charmed  with  her,  said  he 
would  cure  her  father  if  she  would  only  give  him 
her  love.  He  looked  so  ragged  and  dirty  that  she 
refused,  but  she  took  him  to  her  father  and  informed 
3*4 


"  The  younger  one  flew  away  " 
William  Sew  ell 


324 


THE  MYTH  OF  HUATHIACURI 

him  that  Huathiacuri  said  he  could  cure  him.  Her 
father  consented  to  give  him  an  opportunity  to  do  so. 
Huathiacuri  began  his  cure  by  telling  the  sick  man 
that  his  wife  had  been  unfaithful,  and  that  there  were 
two  serpents  hovering  above  his  house  to  devour  it, 
and  a  toad  with  two  heads  under  his  grinding-stone. 
His  wife  at  first  indignantly  denied  the  accusation,  but 
on  Huathiacuri  reminding  her  of  some  details,  and  the 
serpents  and  toad  being  discovered,  she  confessed  her 
guilt.  The  reptiles  were  killed,  the  man  recovered, 
and  the  daughter  was  married  to  Huathiacuri. 

Huathiacuri's  poverty  and  raggedness  displeased  the 
girl's  brother-in-law,  who  suggested  to  the  bridegroom 
a  contest  in  dancing  and  drinking.  Huathiacuri  went 
to  seek  his  father's  advice,  and  the  old  man  told  him 
to  accept  the  challenge  and  return  to  him.  Paricaca 
then  sent  him  to  a  mountain,  where  he  was  changed 
into  a  dead  llama.  Next  morning  a  fox  and  its  vixen 
carrying  a  jar  of  chicha  came,  the  fox  having  a  flute  of 
many  pipes.  When  they  saw  the  dead  llama  they 
laid  down  their  things  and  went  toward  it  to  have 
a  feast,  but  Huathiacuri  then  resumed  his  human  form 
and  gave  a  loud  cry  that  frightened  away  the  foxes, 
whereupon  he  took  possession  of  the  jar  and  flute. 
By  the  aid  of  these,  which  were  magically  endowed, 
he  beat  his  brother-in-law  in  dancing  and  drinking. 

Then  the  brother-in-law  proposed  a  contest  to  prove 
who  was  the  handsomer  when  dressed  in  festal  attire. 
By  the  aid  of  Paricaca  Huathiacuri  found  a  red 
lion-skin,  which  gave  him  the  appearance  of  having  a 
rainbow  round  his  head,  and  he  again  won. 

The  next  trial  was  to  see  who  could  build  a  house 
the  quickest  and  best.  The  brother-in-law  got  all  his 
men  to  help,  and  had  his  house  nearly  finished  before 
the  other  had  his  foundation  laid.  But  here  again 

3*5 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 
Paricaca's  wisdom  proved  of  service,  for  Huathiacuri  got 
animals  and  birds  of  all  kinds  to  help  him  during  the 
night,  and  by  morning  the  building  was  finished  except 
the  roof.  His  brother-in-law  got  many  llamas  to  come 
with  straw  for  his  roof,  but  Huathiacuri  ordered  an  animal 
to  stand  where  its  loud  screams  frightened  the  llamas 
away,  and  the  straw  was  lost.  Once  more  Huathiacuri 
won  the  day.  At  last  Paricaca  advised  Huathiacuri  to 
end  this  conflict,  and  he  asked  his  brother-in-law  to  see 
who  could  dance  best  in  a  blue  shirt  with  white  cotton 
round  the  loins.  The  rich  man  as  usual  appeared  first, 
but  when  Huathiacuri  came  in  he  made  a  very  loud 
noise  and  frightened  him,  and  he  began  to  run  away. 
As  he  ran  Huathiacuri  turned  him  into  a  deer.  His 
wife,  who  had  followed  him,  was  turned  into  a 
stone,  with  her  head  on  the  ground  and  her  feet  in 
the  air,  because  she  had  given  her  husband  such  bad 
advice. 

The  four  remaining  eggs  on  the  mountain-top  then 
opened,  and  four  falcons  issued,  which  turned  inta  four 
great  warriors.  These  warriors  performed  many  miracles, 
one  of  which  consisted  in  raising  a  storm  which 
swept  away  the  rich  Indian's  house  in  a  flood  to 
the  sea. 

Paricaca 

Having  assisted  in  the  performance  of  several 
miracles,  Paricaca  set  out  determined  to  do  great  deeds. 
He  went  to  find  Caruyuchu  Huayallo,  to  whom 
children  were  sacrificed.  He  came  one  day  to  a  village 
where  a  festival  was  being  celebrated,  and  as  he  was  in 
very  poor  clothes  no  one  took  any  notice  of  him  or 
offered  him  anything,  till  a  young  girl,  taking  pity  on 
him,  brought  him  chicha  to  drink.  In  gratitude  Paricaca 
told  her  to  seek  a  place  of  safety  for  herself,  as  the 
316 


"  His  wife  at  first  indignantly  denied  the  accusation  "  326 

William  Sewell 


PARICACA 

village  would  be  destroyed  after  five  days,  but  she  was 
to  tell  no  one  of  this.  Annoyed  at  the  inhospitality  of 
the  people,  Paricaca  then  went  to  a  hill-top  and  sent  down 
a  fearful  storm  and  flood,  and  the  whole  village  was 
destroyed.  Then  he  came  to  another  village,  now  San 
Lorenzo.  He  saw  a  very  beautiful  girl,  Choque  Suso, 
crying  bitterly.  Asking  her  why  she  wept,  she  said  the 
maize  crop  was  dying  for  want  of  water.  Paricaca  at 
once  fell  in  love  with  this  girl,  and  after  first  damming  up 
the  little  water  there  was,  and  thus  leaving  none  for  the 
crop,  he  told  her  he  would  give  her  plenty  of  water  if 
she  would  only  return  his  love.  She  said  he  must 
get  water  not  only  for  her  own  crop  but  for  all  the 
other  farms  before  she  could  consent.  He  noticed  a 
small  rill,  from  which,  by  opening  a  dam,  he  thought  he 
might  get  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  for  the  farms. 
He  then  got  the  assistance  of  the  birds  in  the  hills,  and 
animals  such  as  snakes,  lizards,  and  so  on,  in  removing 
any  obstacles  in  the  way,  and  they  widened  the  channel 
so  that  the  water  irrigated  all  the  land.  The  fox  with 
his  usual  cunning  managed  to  obtain  the  post  of 
engineer,  and  carried  the  canal  to  near  the  site  of  the 
church  of  San  Lorenzo.  Paricaca,  having  accomplished 
what  he  had  promised,  begged  Choque  Suso  to  keep 
her  word,  which  she  willingly  did,  but  she  proposed 
living  at  the  summit  of  some  rocks  called  Yanacaca. 
There  the  lovers  stayed  very  happily,  at  the  head  of  the 
channel  called  Cocochallo,  the  making  of  which  had 
united  them  ;  and  as  Choque  Suso  wished  to  remain 
there  always,  Paricaca  eventually  turned  her  into  a 
stone. 

In  all  likelihood  this  myth  was  intended  to  account 
for  the  invention  of  irrigation  among  the  early 
Peruvians,  and  from  being  a  local  legend  probably 
spread  over  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  country. 

327 


MYTHS  OF  MEXICO  AND  PERU 

Conclusion 

The  advance  in  civilisation  attained  by  the  peoples 
of  America  must  be  regarded  as  among  the  most 
striking  phenomena  in  the  history  of  mankind,  espe- 
cially if  it  be  viewed  as  an  example  of  what  can  be 
achieved  by  isolated  races  occupying  a  peculiar 
environment.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasised 
that  the  cultures  and  mythologies  of  old  Mexico 
and  Peru  were  evolved  without  foreign  assistance  or 
intervention,  that,  in  fact,  they  were  distinctively  and 
solely  the  fruit  of  American  aboriginal  thought  evolved 
upon  American  soil.  An  absorbing  chapter  in  the 
story  of  human  advancement  is  provided  by  these 
peoples,  whose  architecture,  arts,  graphic  and  plastic, 
laws  and  religions  prove  them  to  have  been  the  equals 
of  most  of  the  Asiatic  nations  of  antiquity,  and  the 
superiors  of  the  primitive  races  of  Europe,  who  entered 
into  the  heritage  of  civilisation  through  the  gateway 
of  the  East.  The  aborigines  of  ancient  America 
had  evolved  for  themselves  a  system  of  writing  which 
at  the  period  of  their  discovery  was  approaching  the 
alphabetic  type,  a  mathematical  system  unique  and 
by  no  means  despicable,  and  an  architectural  science 
in  some  respects  superior  to  any  of  which  the  Old 
World  could  boast.  Their  legal  codes  were  reason- 
able and  founded  upon  justice  ;  and  if  their  religions 
were  tainted  with  cruelty,  it  was  a  cruelty  which  they 
regarded  as  inevitable,  and  as  the  doom  placed  upon 
them  by  sanguinary  and  insatiable  deities  and  not  by 
any  human  agency. 

In  comparing  the  myths  of  the  American  races 
with  the  deathless  stories  of  Olympus  or  the  scarcely 
less  classic  tales  of  India,  frequent  resemblances  and 
analogies  cannot  fail  to  present  themselves,  and  these 
328 


"  He  saw  a  very  beautiful  girl  crying  bitterly  "  328 

William  Sewell 


CONCLUSION 

are  of  value  as  illustrating  the  circumstance  that  in 
every  quarter  of  the  globe  the  mind  of  man  has  shaped 
for  itself  a  system  of  faith  based  upon  similar  prin- 
ciples. But  in  the  perusal  of  the  myths  and  beliefs  of 
Mexico  and  Peru  we  are  also  struck  with  the  strange- 
ness and  remoteness  alike  of  their  subject-matter  and 
the  type  of  thought  which  they  present.  The  result 
of  centuries  of  isolation  is  evident  in  a  profound  contrast 
of  "  atmosphere."  It  seems  almost  as  if  we  stood  for 
a  space  upon  the  dim  shores  of  another  planet,  spec- 
tators of  the  doings  of  a  race  of  whose  modes  of 
thought  and  feeling  we  were  entirely  ignorant. 

For  generations  these  stories  have  been  hidden, 
along  with  the  memory  of  the  gods  and  folk  of  whom 
they  tell,  beneath  a  thick  dust  of  neglect,  displaced  here 
and  there  only  by  the  efforts  of  antiquarians  working 
singly  and  unaided.  Nowadays  many  well-equipped 
students  are  striving  to  add  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
civilisations  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  To  the  mythical 
stories  of  these  peoples,  alas  !  we  cannot  add.  The 
greater  part  of  them  perished  in  the  flames  of  the 
Spanish  autos-de-fL  But  for  those  which  have  survived 
we  must  be  grateful,  as  affording  so  many  casements 
through  which  we  may  catch  the  glitter  and  gleam  of 
civilisations  more  remote  and  bizarre  than  those  of  the 
Orient,  shapes  dim  yet  gigantic,  misty  yet  many- 
coloured,  the  ghosts  of  peoples  and  beliefs  not  the  least 
splendid  and  solemn  in  the  roll  of  dead  nations  and 
vanished  faiths. 


ztapalapan 
exicaltzinco 
Culhuac 


li       Coyohuacans 

Huitzilopocho0 
Xochimilc 


Tlalmanalco' 
Amaquemecan 


'buaslepeo 


MAP  OF  THE  VALLEY  OP  MEXICO 

From  the  author's  "  Civilization  of  Ancient  Mexico"  by 

permission  of  the  Cambridge  University  Press 


3D 

Cj 


I 

•$ 

i 

I 


Empire  of  Zone  of  AYMARA 

the  Incas          influence 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  RACKS  UKD1K  THE  EMPIRE  Of  THE  IflCAS 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

THE  following  bibliography  is  not  intended  to  be 
exhaustive,  but  merely  to  indicate  to  those  who  desire 
to  follow  up  the  matter  provided  in  the  preceding 
pages  such  works  as  will  best  repay  their  attention. 

Mexico 

ACOSTA,  JOSE"  DK  :  Historia  Natural  y  Moral  dt  lot  Yndias.  Seville, 
1580. 

ALZATE  Y  RAMIREZ  :  Description  de  las  Antiguedades  de  Xochicalco.    1791. 

BANCROFT,  H.  H.  :  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States  of  America.  1875. 
A  compilation  of  historical  matter  relating  to  aboriginal  America, 
given  almost  without  comment.  Useful  to  beginners. 

BOTURINI  BENADUCI,  L.  :  Idea  de  una  Nueva  Historia  General  de  la 
America  Septentrional.  Madrid,  1746.  Contains  a  number  of 
valuable  original  manuscripts. 

BOURBOURG,  ABBE  BRASSEUR  DE  :  Histoire  des  Nations  CiviRse'es  du 
Mexique  et  de  rAmerique  Centrale.  Paris,  1857-59.  The  Abb£ 
possessed  much  knowledge  of  the  peoples  of  Central  America 
and  their  ancient  history,  but  had  a  leaning  toward  the 
marvellous  which  renders  his  works  of  doubtful  value. 

CHARNAY,  DESIRE"  :  Ancient  Cities  of  the  New  World.  London,  1887. 
This  translation  from  the  French  is  readable  and  interesting, 
and  is  of  assistance  to  beginners.  It  is,  however,  of  little  avail 
as  a  serious  work  of  reference,  and  has  been  superseded. 

CHEVALIER,  M. :  Le  Mexique  Ancien  et  Moderne.     Paris,  1886. 

CLAVIGERO,  ABBE"  :  Storia  Antica  del  Messico.  Cesena,  1780. 
English  translation,  London,  1787.  Described  in  text. 

DIAZ,  BERNAL  :  Historia  Verdadera  de  la  Conquista  de  Nueva  Esfana. 
1837.  An  eye-witness's  account  of  the  conquest  of  Mexico. 

ENOCK,  C.  REGIMAI,P  :  Mexico,  its  Ancient  and  Modem  Civifisationt  Sec. 
London,  1909. 

GOMARA,  F.  L.  DE  :  Historia  General  Je  lai  Yndias.     Madrid,  1749. 

HE»RERA;  ANTONIO  DK  :  Historia  General  de  los  Hechos  de  los  Castellanos 
en  las  Is/as  y  Tierra  Firme  del  Mar  Oceano.  4  vols.  Madrid, 
1 60 1 

335 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

HUMBOLDT,  ALET.  VON  :  Vues  des  Cordillcres.  Paris,  1816.  English 
translation  by  Mrs.  Williams. 

IXTLILXOCHITL,  F.  DE  ALVA  :  HistoHa  Chichimeca;  Relaciones.  Edited 
by  A.  Chavero.  Mexico,  1891-92. 

KINGSBOROUGH,  LORD  :   Antiquities  of  Mexico.     London,  1830. 

LUMHOLTZ,  C.  :   Unknown  Mexico.     1903. 

MAcNuiT,  F.  C. :  Letters  ofCortis  to  Charles  V.     London,  1908. 

NADAILLAC,  MARQUIS  DI  :  Prehistoric  America.  Translation.  London, 
1885. 

NOLL,  A.  H.  :  A  Short  History  of  Mexico.     Chicago,  1903. 

NUTTALL,  ZELIA  :  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Old  and  New  World 
Civilisations.  1901. 

PAYNE,  E.  J.  :  History  of  the  New  World  called  America.  London, 
1892-99.  By  far  the  best  and  most  exhaustive  work  in  English 
upon  the  subject.  It  is,  however,  unfinished. 

PENAFIEL,  F. :  Monumentos  del  Arte  Mexicans  Antiguo.     Berlin,  1890. 

PRESCOTT,  W.  H.  :  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico.  Of  romantic 
interest  only.  Prescott  did  not  study  Mexican  history  for  more 
than  two  years,  and  his  work  is  now  quite  superseded  from  a 
historical  point  of  view.  Its  narrative  charm,  however,  is 
unassailable. 

SAHAGUN,  BERNARDINO  DE  :  Historia  General  dt  las  Costs  de  Nueva 
Espa»a.  Mexico,  1829. 

SKLER,  E.  :  Mexico  and  Guatemala.     Berlin,  1896. 

SERRA,  JUSTO  (Editor)  :  Mexicot  its  Social  Evolution^  &c.  2  rol», 
Mexico,  1904. 

SPENCE,  LEWIS  :  The  CiviKzation  of  Ancient  Mexico.  A  digest  of  the 
strictly  verifiable  matter  of  Mexican  history  and  antiquities. 
All  tradition  is  eliminated,  the  author's  aim  being  to  present 
the  beginner  and  the  serious  student  with  a  series  of  unem- 
bellished  facts. 

STARR,  F.  :  The  Indians  of  Southern  Mexico.     1899. 

THOMAS,  CYRUS,  AND  MAGEE,  W.  J.  :  The  History  of  Ntrth  America. 

1908. 
TORQUEMADA,  JUAN  DE  :  Monarquia  Indiana.     Madrid,  1723. 

Bulletin  28  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  contains  trans- 
336 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

lations  of  valuable  essays  by  the  German  scholars  Seler,  Schellhas 
Forstemann,  &c. 

Many  ot  the  above  works  deal  with  Central  America  as  well  as 
with  Mexico  proper. 

Central  America 

COGOLLUDO,  D.  LOFEZ  :  Historla  tie  Tucathan.     1688.     Very  scarce. 

DIEGO  DE  LANDA  :  Relation  de  Cosas  de  Yucatan.    Paris,  1836.    Trans- 
lation by  Brasseur. 

DUPAIX,  COLONEL  :  Antiquites  Mexicaines.     Paris,  1 834-36. 

MAUDSLAY,A.  P. :  Biohgia  Central!- Americana,  Publication  proceeding. 
Contains  many  excellent  sketches  of  ruins,  &c, 

SPENCE,  LIWIS  :  The  Pofol  Vuh.     London,  1908. 

Peru 

ENOCK,  C.  R. :  Peru:  its  Former  and  Preterit  Civilisation,  &c.    London 
1908. 

MARKHAM,  SIR  CLEMENTS  R. :  History  of  Peru.     Chicago,  1892. 

PRESCOTT,  W.  H. :  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru*     3  vols.     Phila- 
delphia, 1868. 

SQUIER,  E.  G. :  Peru:  Incidents  ofTravei  and  Exploration  in  the  Land 
of  the  Incas.     London,  1877. 

TSCHUDI,  J.  J.  VON  :  Reisen  durch  Sildamerika.    5  vols.    Leipsic,  1866- 
V>8.     Travels  in  Peru.     London,  1847. 

VEGA,  GARCILASSO  EL  TNCA  DE  LA  :  Royal  Commentaries  oj  the  Incas, 
1609.     Hakluyt  Society's  Publications. 

In  seeking  the  original  sources  of  Peruvian  history  we  must  refer 
to  the  early  Spanish  historians  who  visited  the  country,  either  at  the 
period  of  the  conquest  or  immediately  subsequent  to  it.  From 
those  Spaniards  who  wrote  at  a  time  not  far  distant  from  that  event 
we  have  gained  much  valuable  knowledge  concerning  the  contem- 
porary condition  of  Peru,  and  a  description  of  the  principal  works 
of  these  pioneers  will  materially  assist  the  reader  who  is  bent  on 
pursuing  the  study  of  Peruvian  antiquities. 

Pedro  de  Cieza  de  Leon  composed  a  geographical  account  of 
Peru  in  1554,  devoting  the  latter  part  of  his  chronicle  to  the  subject 
of  the  Inca  civilisation.  This  work  has  been  translated  into  English 

Y  337 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

by    Sir    Clements    R.    Markham,   and    published    by   the    Hakluyt 
Society. 

Juan  Jose  de  Betanzos,  who  was  well  acquainted  with  theQuichua 
language,  and  who  married  an  Inca  princess,  wrote  an  account  of  the 
Incas  in  1551,  which  was  edited  and  printed  by  Seiior  Jimcnes  de  la 
Espada  in  1880. 

Polo  de  Ondegardo,  a  lawyer  and  politician,  wrote  his  two 
Relaciones  in  1561  and  1571,  making  valuable  reports  on  the  laws  and 
system  of  administration  of  the  Incas.  One  of  these  works  has  been 
translated  by  Sir  Clements  R.  Markham,  and  printed  by  the  Hakluyt 
Society. 

Augustin  de  Zarate,  accountant,  who  arrived  in  Peru  with  Blasco 
Nunez  Vela,  the  first  Viceroy,  is  the  author  of  the  Provlncia  del  Peru, 
which  was  published  at  Antwerp  in  1555. 

Fernando  de  Santillan,  judge  of  the  Linia  Audience,  contributed 
an  interesting  Relation  in  1550,  edited  and  printed  in  1879  by  Sefior 
Jimenes  de  la  Espada. 

Juan  de  Matienzo,  a  lawyer  contemporary  with  Ondegardo,  was 
the  author  of  the  valuable  work  Gobierno  de  el  Peru,  not  yet 
translated. 

Christoval  de  Molina,  priest  of  Cuzco,  wrote  an  interesting  story 
of  xnca  ceremonial  and  religion  between  1570  and  1584,  which  has 
been  published  by  the  Hakluyt  Society.  The  translator  is  Sir  C.  R. 
Markham. 

Miguel  Cavello  Balboa,  of  Quito,  gives  us  the  only  particulars  we 
possess  of  Indian  coast  history,  and  the  most  valuable  information  on 
the  war  between  Huascar  and  Atauhuallpa,  in  his  splendid  Miscellanea 
Austral,  1576,  translated  into  French  in  1840  by  Ternaux-Compans. 

A  Jesuit  priest,  Jose  de  Acosta,  compiled  a  Natural  History  of  the 
Indies,  which  was  published  for  the  first  time  in  1588.  An  English 
translation  of  the  work  is  provided  by  the  Hakluyt  Society. 

Fernando  Montesinos  in  his  Memorial  Antiguas  Historiales  del  Peru 
and  Ana'es  Memorial  Nuevas  del  Peru  quotes  a  long  line  of  sovereigns 
who  preceded  the  Incas.  These  works  were  translated  into  French 
in  1840. 

Reladon  de  los  Castombras  Antiguas  de  los  Maturates  del  Peru,  written 
by  an  anonymous  Jesuit,  records  an  account  of  Inca  civilisation. 
The  work  was  published  in  Spain  in  1879.  Another  Jesuit, 
Francisco  de  Avila,  wrote  on  the  superstitions  of  the  Indians  of 
Huarochiri  and  their  gods.  His  work  was  translated  into  English 
and  publiihcJ  by  the  Hakluyt  Society. 
It8 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Pablo  Jos6  de  Arriaga,  a  priest  who  policed  the  country,  destroying 
the  false  gods,  compiled  in  1621  Extirpation  de  la  Idtlatria  del  Peru, 
describing  the  downfall  of  the  ancient  Inca  religion. 

Antonio  de  la  Calancha  compiled  an  interesting  history  of  the  Incas 
in  his  work  on  the  Order  of  St.  Augustine  in  Peru  (1638-1653). 

In  his  Historia  de  Copacabana  y  de  su  Milagrosa  Imogen  (1620) 
Alonzo  Ramos  Gavilan  disclosed  much  information  concerning  the 
colonists  during  the  time  of  the  Inca  rule. 

A  valuable  history  of  the  Incas  is  provided  by  Garcilasso  el  Inca  de  la 
Vega  in  his  Commentaries  Realcs.  The  works  of  previous  authors 
are  reviewed,  and  extracts  are  given  from  the  compilations  of  the 
Jesuit  Bias  Valera,  whose  writings  arc  lost.  The  English  translation 
is  published  by  the  Hakluyt  Society. 

Relation  de  Antiguedades  deste  Reyno  del  Peru,  by  Pachacuti  Yamqui 
Salcamayhua,  an  Indian  of  the  Collao,  was  translated  into  English  by 
Sir  C.  R.  Markham,  and  published  by  the  Hakluyt  Society. 

The  Historia  del  Reino  del  Qulnto,  compiled  by  Juan  de  Velasco, 
was  translated  into  French  by  Ternaux-Compans  in  1840. 

Antonio  de  Herrera  gives  a  brief  account  of  the  history  and 
civilisation  of  the  Inca  people  in  his  General  History  of  the  Indies. 

In  his  History  of  America  Robertson  was  the  first  to  compile  a 
thorough  account  of  the  Incas.  Prescott,  however,  in  1848  eclipsed 
his  work  by  his  own  fascinating  account.  Sir  Arthur  Helps  has  also 
given  a  resumi  of  Inca  progress  in  his  Spanish  Conquest  (1855). 

The  Peruvian  Sebastian  Lorente  published  in  1860  a  history  of 
ancient  Peru,  which  presents  the  subject  more  broadly  than  the 
narratives  of  the  American  and  English  authors,  and  as  the  result  of 
many  years  of  further  research  he  contributed  a  series  of  essays  to 
the  Revista  Peruana. 

One  of  the  best  works  dealing  with  the  antiquities  of  the  Inca 
period  is  Antiguedades  Peruanas,  by  Don  Mariano  Rivero  (English 
translation  by  Dr.  Hawkes,  1853).  The  compilation  on  Peru  by 
E.  G.  Squier  (1877),  and  a  similar  narrative  by  C.  Weiner  (Paris, 
1880),  both  of  which  stand  in  accuracy  above  the  others,  are  also 
worthy  of  mention. 

The  work  of  Reiss  and  Stubcl,  narrating  their  excavations  at 
Ancon,is  richly  presented  in  three  volumes,  with  119  plates. 

The  works  of  Sir  Clements  Markham  are  the  best  guide  to 
English  scholars  on  the  subiect. 

339 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


NOTE  ON  THE  PRONUNCIATION  OF  THE  MEXICAN, 
MAYAN,  AND  PERUVIAN  LANGUAGES 

MEXICAN 

As  the  Spanish  alphabet  was  that  first  employed  to  represent 
Mexican  or  Nahuatl  phonology,  so  Mexican  words  and  names  must  be 
pronounced,  for  the  most  part,  according  to  the  Castilian  system.  An 
exception  is  the  letter  x,  which  in  Spanish  is  sometimes  written  as  j 
and  pronounced  as  h  aspirate  ;  and  in  Nahuatl  sometimes  as  in  English, 
at  other  times  as  sh  or  s.  Thus  the  word  "  Mexico  "  is  pronounced  by 
the  aboriginal  Mexican  with  the  hard  x,  but  by  the  Spaniard  as 
"  May-hee-co."  The  name  of  the  native  author  Ixtlilxochitl  is 
pronounced  "  Ishtlilshotshitl,"  the  ch  being  articulated  as  tsh,  for 
euphony.  Xochicalco  is  "  So-chi-cal-co."  The  vowel  sounds  are 
pronounced  as  in  French  or  Italian.  The  tl  sound  is  pronounced  with 
almost  a  click  of  the  tongue. 

MAYAN 

The  Maya  alphabet  consists  of  twenty -two  letters,  of  which  3. 
ch,  k,  pp,  th,  iz  are  peculiar  to  the  language,  and  cannot  be  properly 
pronounced  by  Europeans.  It  is  deficient  in  the  letters  d,  f,  g,  j,  q,  r,  s. 
The  remaining  letters  are  sounded  as  in  Spanish.  The  letter  x  occurring 
at  the  beginning  of  a  word  is  pronounced  ex.  For  example,  Xbalaaque 
is  pronounced  "  Exbalanke."  The  frequent  occurrence  of  elisions  in 
spoken  Maya  renders  its  pronunciation  a  matter  of  great  difficulty, 
and  the  few  grammars  on  the  language  agree  as  to  the  hopelessness  of 
conveying  any  true  idea  of  the  exact  articulation  of  the  language  by 
means  of  written  directions.  Norman  in  his  work  entitled  Rambles  in 
Yucatan  remarks  :  "  This  perhaps  accounts  for  the  disappearance  of 
all  grammars  and  vocabularies  of  the  Maya  tongue  from  the  peninsula 
of  Yucatan,  the  priests  rinding  it  much  easier  to  learn  the  language 
directly  from  the  Indian  than  to  acquire  it  from  books." 

PERUVIAN 

The  two  languages  spoken  in  Peru  in  ancient  times  were  the  Quichua, 
or  Inca,  and  the  Aymara.  These  still  survive.  The  former  was  the 
language  of  the  Inca  rulers  of  the  country,  but  both  sprang  from  one 
common  linguistic  stock.  As  these  languages  were  first  reduced  to 
writing  by  means  of  a  European  alphabet,  their  pronunciation  presents 
but  little  difficulty,  the  words  practically  being  pronounced  as  they 
are  written, having  regard  to  the  "Continental"  pronunciation  of  the 
vowels.  In  Quichua  the  same  sound  is  given  to  the  intermediate  c 
before  a  consonant  and  to  the  final  c,  as  in  "  chacra  "  and  "  Pachacamac." 
The  general  accent  is  most  frequently  on  the  penultimate  syllable 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


AAC,  PRINCE.  In  the  story  of 
Queen  M6o,  240,  244-245,  246 

ACALAN.  District  in  Guatemala  ; 
race-movements  and,  150 

ACLLACUNA  (Selected  Ones).  Body 
of  maidens  from  whom  victims 
for  sacrifice  were  taken  in  Peru, 

313 
ACLLA-HUASI.       Houses  in  which 

the  Acllacuna  lived,  313 
ACOLHUACAN.    District  in  Mexico, 

26 
ACOLHUANS      (or     ACOLHUAQUE) 

(People  of  the  Broad  Shoulder). 

Mexican  race,  26  ;  said  to  have 

founded   Mexico,    26  ;    a   pure 

Nahua  race,  perhaps  the  Tol- 

tecs,  26  ;  their  supremacy,  48 
ACOLHUAQUE.     See  Acolhuans 
ACOSTA,     JOSE     DE.     Work     on 

Mexican  lore,  58 
ACSUMAMA.        Guardian  spirit  of 

the  potato  plant  in  Peru,  295 
ACXITL.     Toltec     king,     son     of 

Huemac  II,  17,  19 
ACXOPIL.     Ruler    of    the    Kiche, 

158-159 

AGOREROS  (or  MOHANES).  Mem- 
bers 01  Peruvian  tribes  who 
claimed  power  as  oracles,  297- 
298,  314 

AHUIZOTL.     Mexican  king,  30 
AH-ZOTZILS.     A  Maya  tribe,  172 
AKAB-SIB  (Writing  in  the  Dark). 
A    bas-relief    at    El    Castillo, 
Chichen-Itza,  190 
AKE.     Maya  ruins  at,  186-187 
AMERICA.        Superficial      resem- 
blance   between    peoples,    cus- 
toms, and  art-forms  of  Asia  and, 
I  ;     civilisation,    native   origin 
of,    1-2,    3,   328  ;     animal   and 
plant  life  peculiar  to,  2  ;   man, 
origin  of,  in,   2  ;    geographical 
connection  between  Asia  and, 
3  ;     traditions    of    intercourse 
between  Asia  and,  3  ;    Chinese 
Fu-Sang     and,      3  ;      possible 
Chinese  and  Japanese  visits  to, 


3-4  ;  Coronado's  expedition  to, 
4  ;  legends  of  intercourse  be 
tween  Europe  and,  4 ;  "  Great 
Ireland  "  probably  the  same  as, 
4  ;  St.  Brandan's  voyage  and, 

4  ;  reached  by  early  Norsemen, 

5  ;    the  legend  of  Madoc  and, 
5-6  ;  early  belief  in,  respecting 
incursions    from    the    east,    6  ; 
prophecy  of   Chilan  Balam  re 
coming  of  white  men  to,  8 

AMERICA,  CENTRAL.  Indigenous 
origin  of  civilisation  of,  i  ; 
legend  of  Toltec  migration  to,  20 

ANAHUAC  (By  the  Water).  Native 
name  of  the  Mexican  plateau, 
1 8.  See  Mexico 

ANCESTOR-WORSHIP  in  Peru,  296 

ANDEANS.  The  prehistoric  civili- 
sation of,  249-250 ;  architec- 
tural remains  of,  250 

ANTAHUAYLLAS.  Peruvian  tribe, 
284 

ANTILIA.  Legends  of,  have  no  con- 
nection with  /  ^erican  myth,  6 

ANTI-SUYU.  One  of  the  four  racial 
divisions  of  ancient  Peru,  255 

APINGUELA.  Island  on  Lake 
Titicaca  ;  Huaina  Ccapac  and 
the  lake-goddess  and,  299 

APOCATEQUIL.  Peruvian  thunder- 
god,  the  "  Prince  of  Evil "  ;  in 
a  creation-myth,  301-302 

APU-CCAPAC  (Sovereign  Chief). 
Title  of  the  Inca  rulers,  248 

"  APU  -  OLLANTA."  A  drama- 
legend  of  the  Incas,  251-253 

APURIMAC  (Great  Speaker).  River 
in  Peru  ;  regarded  as  an  oracle, 
296 

AQUA.  A  bird -maiden ;  inthe  myth 
of  origin  of  the  Canaris,  319 

ARARA  (Fire-bird).  Same  as 
Kinich-ahau,  which  see 

ARCHITECTURE.  I.  Of  the  Nahua, 
31-34.  II.  Of  the  Maya,  149- 
150,  178-198  ;  the  most  in- 
dividual expression  cf  the 
people,  178  ;  Yucatan  exhibits 
the  most  perfect  specimens, 
and  the  decadent  phase,  178  ; 

343 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


methods  of  building,  178-179  ; 
ignorance  of  some  first  prin- 
ciples, 179;  mural  decoration, 
179  ;  pyramidal  buildings,  180  ; 
definiteness  of  design,  180 ; 
architectural  distri cts,  181  ;  not 
of  great  antiquity,  182  ;  Father 
Burgoa  on  the  palace  at  Mitla, 
199-201.  III.  Of  the  Incas, 
268-269  ;  the  art  in  which  the 
race  showed  greatest  advance, 
268  ;  Sir  Clements  Markham 
on,  269 

ARRIAGA,  P.  J.  DE.  On  stone- 
worship  in  Peru,  293 

ART.  Early  American,  superficial 
resemblance  to  that  of  Asia,  i  ; 
native  origin  and  unique  cha- 
racter of  American,  1-2  ;  Toltec, 
23 ;  Peruvians  weak  in,  248 

ASIA.  Origin  of  early  American 
culture  erroneously  attributed 
to,  I  ;  man  originally  came  to 
America  from,  2  ;  former  land- 
connection  between  America 
and,  3  ;  traditions  of  inter- 
course between  America  and,  3 

ATAGUJU.  Supreme  divinity  of 
the  Peruvians ;  in  a  creation- 
myth,  301 

ATAMALQUALIZTLI  (Fast  of  Por- 
ridge-balls and  Water).  Nahua 
festival,  77 

ATATARHO.  Mythical  wizard- 
king  of  the  Iroquois,  72 

ATAUHUALLPA.  Son  of  the  Inca 
Huaina  Ccapac  ;  strives  for  the 
crown  with  Huascar,  289-290 

ATL  (Water).  Mexican  deity  ; 
often  confounded  with  the 
moon-goddess,  106 

ATLANTIS.  Legends  of,  have  no 
connection  with  American 
myth,  6 

AUQUI  (Warrior).  Peruvian  order 
of  knighthood  ;  instituted  by 
Pachacutic,  287 

AVENDANO,  HERNANDEZ  DE.  And 
Peruvian  fetishes,  295 

AVILIX.  The  god  assigned  to 
Balam-Agab  in  the  Kiche  story 
of  the  creation,  230 ;  turned 
into  stone,  231 

344 


AXAIACATZIN,  KING.  Father  ot 
Chachiuhnenetzin,  the  vicious 
wife  of  Nezahualpilli,  129 

AXAYACATL.     Mexican  king,  92 

AYMARA.  Peruvian  race,  254- 
255  ;  fusion  with  Quichua,  285- 
286 

AZANGARO.  The  Sondor-huasi  at, 
269 

AZCAPOZALCO.  Mexican  town,  26 ; 
rivalry  with  Tezcuco,  49  ;  Aztecs 
and, 52 

AZTECS  (or  AZTECA)  (Crane  People). 
A  nomad  Mexican  tribe,  27, 
50-51  ;  racial  affinities,  27 ; 
character,  27-28  ;  Tlascalans 
and,  26  ;  founders  of  Tenoch- 
titlan  (Mexico),  27  ;  their 
science,  43  ;  in  bondage  to 
Colhuacan,  51  ;  allied  with 
Tecpanecs,  51  ;  war  with  Tec- 
panecs,  52  ;  development  of  the 
empire,  52  ;  commercial  expan- 
sion, 52  ;  their  tyranny,  52-53  ; 
their  conception  of  eternity, 
55*  the  priesthood,  114-117; 
idea  of  the  origin  of  mankind, 
123  ;  a  migration  myth  of,  233 

AZTLAN  (Crane  Land).  Tradi- 
tional place  of  origin  of  Nahua, 
n  ;  Aztecs  and,  50,  233  fc 


BACABS.  Genii  in  Maya  mytho- 
logy, 170 

BALAM-AGAB  (Tiger  of  the  Night). 
One  of  the  first  men  of  the 
Popol  Vuh  myth,  229,  230 

BALAM-QUITZB  (Tiger  with  the 
Sweet  Smile).  An  ancestor  of 
the  Maya,  188  ;  one  of  the  first 
men  of  the  Popol  Vuh  myth, 
229, 230 

BALON  ZACAB.  Form  of  the  Maya 
rain-god,  176 

BAT.  Typical  of  the  underworld, 
96 

BAT-GOD.  Maya  deity,  known 
also  as  Camazotz,  171-172 

BIRTH-CYCLE.  In  Mexican  calen- 
dar, 39,  41 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


BOCHICA.  Sun-god  of  the  Chib- 
chas,  276 

BOGOTA.  City  at  which  the 
Zippa  of  the  Chibchas  lived,  276 

BOTURINI  BENADUCI,  L.  His  work 
on  Mexican  lore,  58 

BOURBOURG,  THE  ABBE  BRAS- 
SEUR  DE.  Version  of  Nahua 
flood-myth,  122-123 

BRANDAN,  ST.  Probable  voyage 
to  America,  4 

BRINTON,  D.  G.  Theory  as  to 
the  Toltecs,  21  ;  on  Quetzal- 
coatl,  81  ;  translation  of  a 
poem  on  the  Peruvian  thunder- 
god  myth,  and  comments  on 
the  myth,  300-301 

BURGOA,  FATHER.  Account  of  a 
confession  ceremony,  108-110  ; 
description  of  Mitla,  199-206 


CABRAKAN  (Earthquake)  Son  of 
Vukub-Cakix ;  in  a  Kiche  myth 
in  the  Popol  Vuh,  211,  213,  216- 
219 

CABRERA,  DON  FELIX.  And  the 
Popol  Vuh,  207 

CACHAPUCARA.  Hill ;  Thonapa 
and, 319-320 

CAHA-PALUMA  (Falling  Water). 
One  of  the  first  women  of  the 
Popol  Vuh  myth,  230 

CAKIXA  (Water  of  Parrots).  One 
of  the  first  women  of  the  Popol 
Vuh  myth,  230 

CAKULHA-HURAKAN  (Lightning). 
A  sub-god  of  Hurakan,  237 

CALDERON,  DON  JOSE.  And 
Palenque,  182 

CALENDAR.  I.  The  Mexican,  38- 
41  ;  an  essential  feature  in  the 
national  life,  38  ;  resemblance 
to  Maya  and  Zapotec  calendric 
systems,  38,  169  ;  possible 
Toltec  origin,  39  ;  the  year,  39  ; 
the  "  binding  of  years,"  39,  40  ; 
the  solar  year,  39  ;  the  nemon- 
temi,  39  ;  the  "  birth-cycle," 
39,  41  ;  the  cempohualli,  or 
"  months,"  39-40  ;  the  eccle- 
siastical system,  40  ;  the  xiu- 


malpilli,  40  ;  the  ceremony 
of  toxilmoipilia,  41.  II.  The 
Maya;  similarities  to  calendar 
of  the  Nahua,  38,  169.  III.  The 
Peruvian,  265-266,  313 

CALLCA.  Place  in  Peru;  sacred 
rocks  found  at,  293 

CAMAXTLI.  War -god  of  the  Tlas- 
calans,  m 

CAMAZOTZ.  The  bat-god,  called 
also  Zotzilaha  Chimalman,  171- 
172,  226;  a  totem  of  the  Ah- 
zotzils,  a  Maya  tribe,  172 

CAMULATZ.  Bird  in  the  Kiche 
story  of  the  creation,  209 

CANARIS.  Indian  tribe ;  the 
myth  of  their  origin,  318-319 

CANEK.  King  of  Chichen-Itza  ; 
the  story  of,  189 

CANNIBALISM.  Among  the  Mexi- 
cans, 45 

CAPACAHUANA.  Houses  for  pil- 
grims to  Titicaca  at,  311 

CARAPUCU.  I.  Hill  ;  in  myth  of 
Thonapa,  320.  II.  Lake  ;  in 
myth  of  Thonapa,  320 

CARAVAYA.  Mountain  ;  in  myth 
of  Thonapa,  320 

CARMENCA.  The  hill  of,  at  Cuzco ; 
pillars  on,  for  determining  the 
solstices,  265-266,  287 

CARUYUCHU  HUAYALLO.  Peru- 
vian deity  to  whom  children 
were  sacrificed  ;  in  a  myth  of 
Paricaca,  326 

CASA  DEL  ADIVINO  (The  Prophet's 
House).  Ruin  at  Uxmal,  called 
also  "  The  Dwarf's  House," 
192  ;  the  legend  relating  to, 
192-194 

CASA  DEL  GOBERNADOR  (Gover- 
nor's  Palace).  Ruin  at  Uxmal, 
191 

CASAS  GRANDES  (Large  Houses). 
Mexican  ruin,  32 

CASTILLO,  EL.  Ruined  pyramid- 
temple  at  Chichen-Itza,  188, 
190 

CAUAC.     A  minor  Maya  deity,  170 

CAVILLACA.  A  maiden ;  the 
myth  of  Coniraya  Viracocha 
and, 321-323 

CAXAMARCA.     Inca  fortress,  290 

345 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


CAY  HUN-APU  (Royal  Hunter). 
The  Kakchiqucls  and  the  defeat 

of,  159 

CCAPAC-COCHA.  Sacrificial  rite, 
instituted  by  Pachacutic,  286 

CcAPAC-HuARi.  Eleventh  Inca, 
288, 289 

CCAPAC  RAYMI.  The  chief  Peru- 
vian festival,  267  ;  Auqui, 
order  of  knighthood,  conferred 
at,  287 

CCAPAC  SITUA  (or  CCOYA  RAYMI) 
(Moon  Feast).  Peruvian  festi- 
val, 267 

CCAPAC  YUPANQUI.  Fifth  Inca, 
283 

CCOMPAS.  Agricultural  fetishes  of 
the  Peruvians,  294 

CEMPOHUALLI.  The  Mexican 
month,  40 

CBNTEOTL.  I.  Group  of  maize- 
gods,  85.  II.  A  male  maize- 
spirit,  85,  90  ;  God  E  similar 
to,  174.  III.  Mother  of  II, 
known  also  as  Teteoinnan  and 
Tocitzin,  85,  90 

CENTZONUITZNAUA.  Mythical 
Indian  tribe ;  in  myth  of 
Huitzilopochtli's  origin,  70-72 

CHAC.  -Maya  rain-god,  tutelar 
of  the  east,  170  ;  has  affinities 
with  Tlaloc,  176  ;  God  K  not 
identical  with,  176 

CHACAMARCA.  River  in  Peru ; 
Thonapa  and, 320 

CHACHIUHNENETZIN.  Wife  of 
Nezahualpilli ,  129-132 

CHACRAS.  Estates  dedicated 
to  the  sun  by  the  Peruvians, 
310 

CHALCAS.     Aztec  tribe,  233 

CHALCHIHUITLICUE  (Lady  of  the 
Emerald  Robe).  Wife  of  Tlaloc, 
75,  77,  no  ;  assists  the  maize- 
goddess,  86 

CHALCHIUH  TLATONAC  (Shining 
Precious  Stone).  First  king  of 
theToltecs,  14 

"CHAMAYHUARISCA  "  (The  Song 
of  Joy).  Manco  Ccapac  sings, 
321 

CHANCA.  A  Peruvian  people ; 
and  the  Incas,  282 


CH  ARNAY,  D.  Excavations  on  the 
site  of  Teotihuacan,  33  ;  exca- 
vations at  Tollan,  34 ;  and 
Lorillard,  195 

CHASCA.  The  Peruvian  name  for 
the  planet  Venus  ;  the  temple 
of,  at  Cuzco,  262 

CHIAPAS.  Mexican  province ;  the 
nucleus  of  Maya  civilisation  lay 
in, 144, 149 

CHIBCHAS.  A  Peruvian  race,  275- 
277 

CHICHAN-CHOB.  Ruin  at  Chichen- 
Itza, 189 

CHICHEN-ITZA.  Sacred  city  of  the 
Maya  ;  founded  by  Itzaes,  153  ; 
overthrown  by  Cocomes,  153, 
155  ;  assists  in  conquering 
Cocomes,  156  ;  abandoned,  156; 
ruins  at,  188-190 ;  and  the 
story  of  Canek,  189 

CHICHICASTENANGO.  The  Con- 
vent of;  and  the  Popol  Vuh, 
207 

CHICHICS.  Agricultural  fetishes 
of  the  Peruvians,  294 

CHICHIMECS.  Aztec  tribe  ;  invade 
Toltec  territory,  18  ;  the  great 
migration,  20 ;  supreme  in 
Toltec  country,  20 ;  probably 
related  to  Otomi,  25  ;  » allied 
with  Nahua  and  adopt  Nahua 
language,  26 ;  conquered  by 
Tecpanecs,  51 

CHICOMECOHUATL  (Seven-serpent). 
Chief  maize-goddess  of  Mexico, 
85-88 ;  image  of,  erroneously 
called  Teoyaominqui  by  early 
Americanists,  88-90 

CHICOMOZTOC  (The  Seven  Caverns). 
Nahua  said  to  have  originated 
at,  II ;  and  Aztec  idea  of  origin 
of  mankind,  123  ;  identified  with 
"  seven  cities  of  Cibola  "  and 
the  Casas  Grandes,  123  ;  paral- 
lel with  the  Kiche  Tulan- 
Zuiva,  230 

CHICUHCOATL.  In  the  story  of 
the  vicious  princess,  130 

CHIHUAHUA.     Mexican    province, 

3i 

CHILANBALAM.V  Maya  priest;  the 
prophecy  of,  8 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


CHIMALMAT.          Wife  of  Vukub- 

Cakix  ;  in  a  Kiche  myth,  211- 

213 
CHIMALPAHIN.  Mexicanchronicle ', 

42 
CHIMU.     The    plain    of ;     ruined 

city  on,  271  ;   the  palace,  271- 

272  ;     the    ruins    display    an 

advanced  civilisation,  272-273 
CHINCHERO.     Inca  ruins  at,  269 
CHIPI-CAKULHA  (Lightning-flash). 

A  sub-god  of  Hurakan,  237 
CHOIMA  (Beautiful  Water).     One 

of  the  first  women  of  the  Popol 

Vuh  myth,  230 
CHOLULA.     Sacred  city  inhabited 

by    Acolhuans,    47,    48  ;     the 

pottery  of,  23 
CHONTALS.       Aboriginal  Mexican 

race,  23 
CHOQUB      Suso.      Maiden  ;      the 

myth  of  Paricaca  and,  327 
CHULPAS.         Megalithic  mummy 

tombs  of  Peru,  263 
CHUROQUELLA.     A  name  of  the 

Peruvian  thunder-god,  299 
"  CITADEL,"  THE,  at  Teotihuacan, 

33 

CITALLATONAC.     Mexican    deity ; 

in  a  flood-myth,  123 
CITALLINICUB.        Mexican  deity  ; 

in  a  flood-myth,  123 
CITATLI     (Moon).       A    form    of 

the    Mexican    moon  -  goddess, 

1 06 
CITLALPOL     (The     Great     Star). 

Mexican    name    of   the   planet 

Venus,  96 

CITOC  RAYMI  (Gradually  Increas- 
ing Sun).        Peruvian  festival, 

312-313 
CIUAPIPILTIN  (Honoured  Women). 

Spirits  of  women  who  had  died 

in  childbed,  108,  138 
CIVILISATION.       I.  Of  Mexico,  i- 

53  ;    indigenous  origin   of,    i  ; 

type  of,  9.     II.  Of  Peru,  248- 

290  ;    indigenous  origin  of,   i, 

259  ;    inferior  to  the  Mexican 

and  Mayan,  248.     III.  Of  the 

Audeans,  249 
CLAVIGERO,  THE  ABBE.     His  work 

on  Mexican  lore,  57-58 


"  CLIFF-DWELLERS."  Mexican 
race  related  to  the  Nahua,  24, 

25 
CLIFF  PALACE  CANON,  Colorado, 

229 

COAAPAN.     Place  in  Mexico,  65 
COATEPEC.     I.  Mexican  province, 

62,  63.     II.  Mountain,  70 
Co  ATI.     An  island  on  Lake  Titi- 

caca  ;    ruined  temple  on,  270- 

271 
COATLANTONA  (Robe  of  Serpents). 

A  name  of  Coatlicue,  Huitzilo- 

pochtli's  mother,  73 
COATLICUE.      Mother  of  Huitzilo- 

pochtli,    70-71  ;     as    Coatlan- 

tona,  73 
COCAMAMA.        Guardian  spirit  of 

the  coca-shrub  in  Peru,  295 
COCHTAN.     Place  in  Mexico,  65 
COCOCHALLO.    An  irrigation  chan- 
nel ;   in   a   myth  of   Paricaca 

327 

COCOMES.  A  tribe  inhabiting 
Mayapan  ;  overthrow  Chichen- 
Itza,  153  ;  their  tyranny  and 
sway,  154-155  ;  conquered  by 
allies,  156 ;  remnant  found 
Zotuta,  156 

CODEX  PEREZIANUS.  Maya  manu- 
script, 1 60 

COGOLLUDO,  D.  LOPEZ.  And  the 
story  of  Canek,  189 

COH,  PRINCB.  In  the  story  of 
Queen  Moo,  240,  244,  246 

COHUATZINCATL  (He  who  has 
Grandparents).  A  pulque-god, 

*°5 
COLCAMPATA,  THE,  at  Cuzco.    The 

palace  on,  269 
COLHUACAN.         I.  Mexican  city, 

20,    26,    233.        II.     King    of  ; 

father  of  the  sacrificed  princess, 

124 
COLLA-SUYU.     One    of    the    four 

racial  divisions  of  ancient  Peru, 

255 

CON.  Thunder-god  of  Collao  of 
Peru, 78, 299 

CONFESSION  among  the  Mexicans, 
1 06,  1 08  ;  Tlazolteotl  the  god- 
dess of,  1 06  ;  accounts  of  the 
ceremony,  106-110 

347 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


CONIRAYA  VIRACOCHA.  A  Peru- 
vian nature-spirit;  the  myth 
of  Cavillacaand,  321-323 

CONTICI  (The  Thunder  Vase). 
Peruvian  deity  representing  the 
thunderstorm,  301 

CONTICSI  -  VIRACOCHA       (He      who 

gives    Origin).     Peruvian    con- 
ception of  the  creative  agency, 

3°4 
CONTI-SUYU.     One    of    the    four 

racial  divisions  of  ancient  Peru, 

255 
COPACAHUANA.        Idol  associated 

with     the     worship     of     Lake 

Titicaca,  298 
COPACATI.       Idol  associated  with 

the  worship  of  Lake  Titicaca, 

298 
COI-AL.     Prince  ;     in    legend    of 

foundation  of  Mexico,  28 
COPAN.       Maya  city  ;   sculptural 

remains  at,  196  ;    evidence  at, 

of  a  new  racial  type,  196-197 
CORICANCHA     (Town     of     Gold). 

Temple  of  the  sun  at  Cuzco, 

260-262  ;    built  by  Pachacutic, 

286  ;  image  of  the  thunder-god 

in, 300 
CORTES.     Lands  at  Vera  Cruz,  7  ; 

mistaken  for    Quetzalcoatl,    7, 

80 ;   the  incident  of  the  death 

of    his    horse   at  Peten  -  Itza, 

195 
COTZBALAM.     Bird  in  the   Kiche 

story  of  the  creation,  209 
COXOH  CHOL  dialect,  145 
COYOHUACAN.    Mexican  city,  50 
COYOLXAUHQUI.       Daughter     of 

Coatlicue,  70-72 
COYOTL  INAUAL.        A  god  of  the 

Amantecas  ;  and  Quetzalcoatl, 

79 
COZAANA.     A  Zapotec  deity;    in 

creation-myth,  121 
COZCAAPA     (Water    of     Precious 

Stones).     A    fountain ;     in    a 

Quetzalcoatl  myth,  65 
COZCATZIN  CODEX,  92 
COZUMEL      The  island  of,  154 
CREATION.      Mexican  conceptions 

of,  118-120;    the  legend  given 

by  Ixtlilxochitl,  119-120;    the 

348 


Mixtec  legend  of,  120-121  ;  the 
Zapotec  legend  of,  121-122  ; 
the  Kiche  story  of,  in  the  Popol 
Vuh,  209  ;  of  man,  the  Popol 
Vuh  myth  of,  229-230  ;  of  man, 
a  Peruvian  myth  of,  256  ;  the 
Inca  conception  of,  257-258, 
305  ;  local  Peruvian  myths, 
258-259 

CROSS,  THE.  A  symbol  of  the 
four  winds  in  Mexico  and  Peru, 
273  ;  account  of  the  discovery 
of  a  wooden,  274-275 

CUCHUMAQUIQ.  Father  of  Xquiq  ; 
in  Popol  Vuh  myth,  222 

CUITLAVACAS.    Aztec  tribe,  233 

CURI  -  COYLLUR  (Joyful  Star). 
Daughter  of  Yupanqui  Pacha- 
cutic ;  in  the  drama  Apu- 
Ollanta,  251-253 

CUYCHA.  Peruvian  name  for  the 
rainbow  ;  temple  of,  at  Cuzco, 
262 

Cuzco  (Navel  of  the  Universe). 
The  ancient  capital  of  the 
Incas,  248 ;  and  the  racial 
division  of  Peru,  255  ;  in  the 
legend  of  Manco  Ccapac,  256  ; 
a  great  culture-centre,  256  ; 
founded  by  the  sun-god, ^258  ; 
the  Coricancha  at,  260^-262  ; 
power  under  Pachacutic,  285 


DISCOVERY.  American  myths 
relating  to  the,  6 

DRESDEN  CODEX.  Maya  manu- 
script, 160 

DRINK-GODS,  Mexican,  104-105 

"  DWARF'S  HOUSE,  THE."  Ruin 
at  Uxmal,  192  ;  legend  relating 
to, 192-194 


EARTH-MOTHER.  See  Teteoinnaa 
EDUCATION.  In  Mexico,  115-116 
EHECATL  (The  Air).  Form  of 

Quetzalcoatl,  84 

EKCHUAH.     Maya    god    of    mer- 
chants and  cacao-planters,  170, 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


177  ;     God   L  thought  to   be, 

176  ;    probably  parallel  to  Ya- 

catecutli,  177 

"  EMERALD  FOWL,"  THE,  186 
ETZALQUALIZTLI  (When  they  eat 

Beau  Food).  Festival  of  Tlaloc, 

77 


FATHER     AND     MOTHER     GODS, 

Mexican,  103-104 
FIRE-GOD,  Mexican,  95 
FISH-GODS,  Peruvian,  306 
FLOOD-MYTHS,  122-123,  323-324 
FOOD-GODS,  Mexican,  91 
FORSTEMANN.-DR.    And  the  Maya 

writing,  162,  163  ;    on  God  L, 

176 
Fu  SANG  and  America,  3 


GAMA,  ANTONIO.  His  work  on 
Mexican  lore  and  antiquities,  58 

GHANAN.  Name  given  to  God  E 
by  Brinton,  174 

GOD  A  of  Dr.  Schellhas'  system  ; 
a  death-god,  172-173  ;  thought 
to  resemble  the  Aztec  Xipe,  174 

GOD  B.      Doubtless  Quetzalcoatl, 

GOD  C.     A  god  of  the  pole-star, 

GOD  D.     A  moon-god,  probably 

Itzamna,  173 
GOD    E.     A    maize-god,    similar 

to  Centeotl,  174 
GOD  F.     Resembles  God  A,  174 
GOD  G.     A  sun-god,  174 
GooH,  174 
GOD  K.     Probably  a  god  of  the 

Quetzalcoatl  group,  175-176 
GOD  L.     Probably  an  earth-god, 

176 
GOD    M.     Probably    a    god     of 

travelling  merchants,  176-177 
GOD    N.     Probably    god    of    the 

"  unlucky  days,"  177 
GOD  P.     A  frog-god,  177 
GODDESS     I.     A     water-goddess, 

175 


GODDESS  O.  Probably  tutelar  of 
married  women,  177 

GODS.  Connection  of,  with  war 
and  the  food-supply,  74 ;  Nahua 
conception  of  the  limited  pro- 
ductivity of  food  and  rain 
deities,  77  ;  American  myth 
rich  in  hero-gods,  237 

GOMARA,  F.  L.  DE.  Work  on 
Mexican  lore,  58 

GUACHIMINES  (Darklings).  In- 
habitants of  the  primeval  earth 
in  Peruvian  myth,  301 

GUAMANSURI.  The  first  of  mortals 
in  Peruvian  myth,  301 

GUATEMALA.  I.  The  state  ;  the 
Maya  of,  157-159.  II.  The 
city  ;  the  lost  Popol  Vuh  found 
in, 207 

GUCUMATZ  (Serpent  with  Green 
Feathers).  Kiche  form  of 
Quetzalcoatl,  worshipped  in 
Guatemala,  83,  167,  236 ;  in 
the  Kiche  story  of  the  creation, 
209 

GWYNETH,  OWEN,  father  of 
Madoc,  5 

H 

HACAVITZ.       I.  The  god  assigned 

to    Mahacutah    in    the    Kiche 

story    of    the    creation,    230 ; 

turned  into  stone,  231.         II. 

Mountain  at  which  the   Kiche 

first  saw  the  sun,  231 
HAKLUYT.     His  English  Voyages, 

cited,  5 
HASTU-HUARACA.       Chieftain    of 

the  Antahuayllas  ;   defeated  by 

Pachacutic,     284-285 ;       joins 

with  Pachacutic,  285 
HENRY  VII.        His  patronage  of 

early  American  explorers,  6 
HERNANDEZ,    Father.      And   the 

goddess  Ix  chebel  yax,  170 
HOUSE  OF  BATS.     Abode  of   the 

bat -god,    171  ;     mentioned    in 

Popol  Vuh  myth,  226 
HOUSB  OF  COLD.     In  the    Kiche 

Hades,  226 
HOUSB  OF  DARKNESS.       Ruin  at 

Ake,  1 86 

349 


HOUSB     OF    FEATHERS.      Toltec 

edifice,  15 
HOUSE  OF  FIRB.     In  the    Kiche 

Hades,  226 
HOUSE  OF  GLOOM.     In  the  Kiche 

Hades,  221,  225 
HOUSE  OF  LANCES.     In  the  Kiche 

Hades,  226 
HOUSE  OF  TIGERS.     In  the  Kiche 

Hades,  226 
HRDLICKA,    DR.      And    Mexican 

cliff-dwellings,  24 
HUACAQUAN.      Mountain  ;  in  the 

myth  of  origin  of  the  Canaris, 

3i8 
HUACAS.     Sacred  objects  of  the 

Peruvians,  294 
HUAINA     CCAPAC     (The     Young 

Chief).     Eleventh  Inca,  7,  288- 

289  ;    and  the  lake-goddess  of 

Titicaca,  299 
HUAMANTANTAC.     Peruvian  deity 

responsible    for    the    gathering 

of  sea-birds,  296 
HUANCA.      Peruvian  race  ;  allied 

against  the  Incas,  282,  285 
HUANCAS.       Agricultural  fetishes 

of  the  Peruvians,  294 
HUANTAY-SARA.      Idol  represent- 
ing the  tutelary  spirit  of  the 

maize  plant,  295 
HUARCANS.    The  Inca  Tupac  and, 

288 
HUARCO  (The  Gibbet).   The  valley 

of ;    the  Inca  Tupac  and  the 

natives  of,  288 
HUARIS  (Great  Ones).     Ancestors 

of  the  aristocrats  of  a  tribe  in 

Peru  ;  reverence  paid  to,  296 
HUAROCHIRI.      Village  ;  in  Coni- 

raya  myth,  323 

HUASCAR,  or  TUPAC-CUSI-HUALLPA 

(The    Sun    makes    Joy).     Son 

of  the  Inca  Huaina  Ccapac,  7  ; 

strives    for    the    crown    with 

Atauhuallpa,  289-290 
HUASTECA.      Aboriginal  Mexican 

race  of  Maya  stock,  23,   147- 
48  ;    probably  represent  early 

Maya  efforts  at  colonisation,  1 47 
HUATKKAY.     River  in  Peru  ;  runs 

through     the     Intipampa     at 

Cuzco,  261 

350 


HUATHIACURI.  A  hero,  son  of 
Paricaca  ;  a  myth  of,  324-326 

HUATULCO.  Place  in  Mexico  ; 
Toltecsat,  12 

HUEHUEQUAUHTITLAN.       Place  in 

Mexico ;  Quetzalcoatl  at,  64 

HUEHUETEOTL  (Oldest  of  Gods). 
A  name  of  the  Mexican  fire- 
god,  95 

HUEHUE  TLAPALLAN  (Very  Old 
Tlapallan ).  In  Toltec  creation- 
myth,  119 

HUBHUETZIN.  Toltec  chieftain ; 
rebels  against  Acxitl;  18,  19 

HUEMAC  II.  Toltec  king,  15,  16  ; 
abdicates,  17 ;  opposes  Hue- 
huetzin,  19 

HUEXOTZINCO.  Mexican  city,  48, 
49 

HUEXOTZINCOS.    Aztec  tribe,  233 

HUEYMATZIN  (Great  Hand).  Tol- 
tec necromancer  and  sage,  14  ; 
reputed  author  of  the  Teo- 
A  moxtli,  46  ;  and  Quetzalcoatl, 
84 

HUEYTOZOZTLI  (The  Great  Watch). 
Festival  of  Chicomecohuatl,  86 

HUICHAANA.  Zapotec  deity  ;  in 
creation-myth,  121, 122 

HUILLCAMAYU  ( Huillca  -river  ). 
River  in  Peru  ;  regarded  as  an 
oracle,  296 

HUILLCANUTA.    Place    in    Peru, 

3ii 

HUILLCAS.  Sacred  objects  of  the 
nature  of  oracles,  in  Peru,  296 

HUITZILIMITZIN.  In  the  story  of 
the  vicious  princess,  130 

HUITZILOPOCHO.  Mexican  city, 
50 

HUITZILOPOCHTLI  (Humming-bird 
to  the  Left).  Aztec  god  of  war, 
originally  a  chieftain,  28,  70 ; 
and  the  foundation  of  Mexico, 
28 ;  the  great  temple  of, 
at  Mexico,  30,  31 ;  plots 
against  the  Toltecs  and  Quet- 
zalcoatl, 60  ;  and  the  legend 
of  the  amusing  infant  and  the 
pestilence,  03-64  ;  myth  of  the 
origin  of,  70-72  ;  associated 
with  the  eerpent  and  the  hum- 
ming-bird, 72-73  ;  aa  usually 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


represented,  73  ;  associated 
with  the  gladiatorial  stone,  73  ; 
as  Mexitli,  74  ;  as  serpent -god 
of  lightning,  associated  with 
the  summer,  74 ;  in  connection 
with  Tlaloc,  74  ;  the  Toxcatl 
festival  of,  74  ;  the  priesthood 
of,  75  ;  in  connection  with  the 
legend  of  the  sacrificed  princess, 
124 

HUN-APU  (Master,  or  Magician). 
A  hero-god,  twin  with  Xbal- 
anque  ;  in  a  Kiche  myth,  211- 
2.19  ;  in  the  myth  in  the  second 
book  of  the  Popol  Vuh,  220, 
223-227  ;  mentioned,  237 

HUN-CAMB.  One  of  the  rulers  of 
Xibalba,  the  Kiche  Hades,  220, 
221, 224 

HUNABKU.  God  of  the  Maya, 
representing  divine  unity,  171 

HUNAC  EEL.  Ruler  of  the  Co- 
comes,  155 

HUNBATZ.     Son  of  Hunhun-Apu, 

220, 222,  223 

HUNCHOUEN.  Son  of  Hunhun- 
Apu,  22O,  222,  223 

HUNHUN-APU.  Son  of  Xpiyacoc 
and  Xmucane  ;  in  the  myth  in 
the  second  book  of  the  Popol 
Vuh,  220-222,  224,  225,  227 

HUNPICTOK  (Commander-in-Chief 
of  Eight  Thousand  Flints).  The 
palace  of,  at  Itzamal,  187-188 

HUNSA.  City  at  which  the  Zoque 
of  the  Chibchas  lived,  276 

HURAKAN  (The  One-legged). 
Maya  god  of  lightning  ;  proto- 
type of  Tlaloc,  76,  78  ;  the 
mustachioed  image  of,  at 
Itzamal,  188  ;  =  the  mighty 
wind,  in  the  Kiche  story  of  the 
creation,  209  ;  and  the  creation 
of  man  in  the  second  book  of 
the  Popol  Vuh,  229-230  ;  prob- 
ably same  as  Nahua  Tezcatli- 
poca,  237  ;  his  sub-gods,  237 


ICUTBMAL.       Ruler  of  the  Kiche, 
159 


ILHUICATLAN  (In  the  Sky). 
Column  in  temple  at  Mexico, 
connected  with  the  worship  of 
the  planet  Venus,  96 

ILLATICI  (The  Thunder  Vase). 
Peruvian  deity  representing  the 
thunderstorm,  301 

INCA  ROCA.     Sixth  Inca,  283 

INCAS  (People  of  the  Sun).  The 
Peruvian  ruling  race  ;  a  compo- 
site people,  254 ;  place  of  origin, 
254  ;  inferior  to  the  Mexicans 
in  general  culture,  248  ;  mytho- 
logy of,  255-258,  317-327  ; 
character  of  their  civilisation, 
259 ;  no  personal  freedom, 
260 ;  age  of  marriage,  260 ; 
their  system  of  mummification, 
262-264  J  severity  of  their 
legal  code,  264  ;  social  system, 
264-265  ;  calendar,  265-266  ; 
religious  festivals,  267  ;  archi- 
tecture, 268-269 ;  architec- 
tural remains,  270-273  ;  irri- 
gation works,  273  ;  possessed 
no  system  of  writing,  278  ;  the 
quipos,  278-279  ;  as  craftsmen, 
279-281  ;  the  pottery  of,  280- 
281  ;  period  and  extent  of  their 
dominion,  281-282  ;  fusion  of 
the  constituent  peoples,  285- 
286  ;  splitting  of  the  race,  286  ; 
their  despotism,  290  ;  religion 
of,  291  ;  sun-worship  of,  307- 

313 

INCAS.  The  rulers  of  Peru,  282- 
290  ;  the  Inca  the  representa- 
tive of  the  sun,  260  ;  unlimited 
power  of,  260  ;  the  moon  the 
mythic  mother  of  the  dynasty, 
262 

INTI-HUASI.  Building  sacred  to 
the  sun  in  Peruvian  villages, 
308 

INTIHUATANA.  Inca  device  for 
marking  the  date  of  the  sun- 
festivals,  265 

INTIP  RAYMI  (Great  Feast  of  the 
Sun).  Peruvian  festival,  267, 
311-312 

INTIPAMPA  (Field  of  the  Sun). 
Garden  in  which  the  Coricancha 
of  Cuzco  stood,  260-261 

35' 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


IPALNEMOHUANI  (He  by  whom 
Men  Live).  Mexican  name  of 
the  sun-god,  97 

IQI-BALAM  (Tiger  of  the  Moon). 
One  of  the  first  men  of 
the  Popol  Vuh  myth,  229, 
230 

IRMA.  District  in  Peru  ;  local 
creation-myth  of ,  258-259 

ITZAES.  A  warlike  race,  founders 
of  Chichen-Itza,  153 

ITZAMAL.  Maya  city-state  in 
Yucatan,  8,  152,  154  ;  ruins  at, 
187-188 

ITZAMNA.  Maya  moon  -  god, 
father  of  gods  and  men,  tutelar 
of  the  west,  170  ;  founder  of  the 
state  of  Itzamal,  152  ;  God  D 
probably  is,  173;  the  temple 
of,  at  Itzamal,  187  ;  called  also 
Kab-ul  (The  Miraculous  Hand), 
187  ;  the  gigantic  image  of, 
at  Itzamal,  188 

Ix.     A  minor  Maya  deity,  170 

Ix  CHEBEL  VAX.  Maya  goddess  ; 
identified  with  Virgin  Mary  by 
Hernandez,  170 

Ix  CH'EL.  Maya  goddess  of  medi- 
cine, 170 

IXCOATL.     Mexican  king,  35 

IXCUINAME.  Mexican  goddesses 
of  carnal  things,  108 

IXTLILTON  (The  Little  Black  One). 
Mexican  god  of  medicine  and 
healing,  112  ;  called  brother  of 
Macuilxochitl,  112 

XTLILXOCHITL,     DON     FERNANDO 

DE  ALVA.  Mexican  chronicler, 
II,  46  ;  account  of  the  early 
Toltcc  migrations,  n,  12  ;  and 
myths  of  the  Toltecs,  13  ; 
reference  to  the  Teo-Amoxtli, 
45  ;  his  Historia  Chichimeca 
and  Relaciones,  46,  58  ;  his 
value  as  historian,  46  ;  legend 
of  the  creation  related  by,  119- 
120 

IZIMIN  CHAC.  The  image  of 
Cortes'  horse,  195 

IZPUZTEQUE.  Demon  in  the 
Mexican  Other-world,  38 

IZTACMIXCOHOATL.  Father  of 
Quetzalcoatl,  79 

352 


JAGUAR-SNAKE.  Mixtec  deer- 
goddess  ;  in  creation-myth,  120 

JALISCO.  Mexican  province ;  cliff- 
dwellings  in,  24,  25 


K 


KABAH.  Maya  city ;  ruins  at, 
190-191 

KAB-UL  (The  Miraculous  Hand). 
Name  given  to  Itzamna,  187 

KAKCHIQUEL  dialect,  145 

KAKCHIQUELS.  A  Maya  people 
of  Guatemala,  157-159  ;  and 
the  episode  of  the  defeat  of 
CayHun-Apu,  159 

"  KAMUCU  "  (We  see).  The  song 
of  the  Kiche  at  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  sun,  and  at  death  of 
the  first  men,  232 

KAN.    A  minor  Maya  deity,  170 

KANIKILAK.     Indian  deity,  83,  84 

Ki  PIXAB  (Corner  of  the  Earth). 
Name  given  by  the  Kiche  to 
their  land  of  origin,  254 

KICHE.  A  Maya  people  of  Guate- 
mala, 157-159 ;  their  rulers 
supreme  in  Guatemala',  158; 
their  story  of  the  creation  as 
related  in  the  Popol  Vuh,  209  ; 
origin  of,  as  related  in  the 
Popol  Vuh,  229-230  ;  fond  of 
ceremonial  dances  and  chants, 
238 

KICHE  (or  QUICHE)  dialect,  145, 
209  ;  the  Popol  Vuh  originally 
written  in,  207,  209 

"  KINGDOM  OF  THE  GREAT 
SNAKE."  Semi -historical  Maya 
empire,  144 

KINICH-AHAU  (Lord  of  the  Face 
of  the  Sun).  Same  as  Arara 
and  Kinich-Kakmo.  Sun-god 
of  the  Maya  of  Yucatan,  tutelar 
of  the  north,  170 

KINICH-KAKMO  (Sun-bird).  I. 
Same  as  Kinich-ahau,  which  see. 
II.  The  pyramid  of,  ruin  at 
Itzamal,  187 

KLAPROTH,  H.  J.  VON.  And  the 
Fu  Sang  fallacy,  3 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


KNUC  (Palace  of  Owls).     Ruin  at 

Ake,  1 86 
KUICATECS.     Aboriginal  Mexican 

race,    24  ;    a   medium  through 

which  Maya  civilisation  filtered 

to  the  north,  147 
KUKULCAN.    Maya  form  of  Quet- 

zalcoatl,  83.  167  ;  regarded  as 

King  of  Mayapan,  152 
KUMSNOOTL.     God  of  the  Salish 

Indians,  83 


LAMACAZTON  (Little  Priests). 
Lowest  order  of  the  Aztec 
priesthood,  116 

LAN  DA,  BISHOP.  And  the  Maya 
alphabet,  161  ;  discovers  the 
Maya  numeral  system,  165 

''  LANDS  OF  THB  SUN."  Name 
given  to  Inca  territories,  308 

LANGUAGE.  Mexican  or  Nahuan, 
42-43,  342;  Mayan,  161,  342; 
Peruvian,  342 

LE  PLONGEON,  DR.  AUGUSTUS. 
His  theories  as  to  the  Maya, 
239  ;  and  the  Maya  hiero- 
glyphs, 239  ;  his  story  of  Queen 
Moo,  239-247 

LEGUICANO.  MANCIO  SERRA  DB. 
And  the  golden  plate  from  the 
Coricancha,  262 

LIVOBAA.  Village  near  Mitla  ; 
mentioned  by  Father  Burgoa, 
204 

LIZANA,  FATHER.  And  the  pro- 
phecy of  Chilan  Balam,  8 

LLAMA.  Importance  of,  among 
the  Incas,  268 

LLOQUE  YUPANQUI.  The  third 
Inca,  283 

LORILLARD.  Maya  city  ;  archi- 
tectural remains  found  at,  195 

M 

MACUILXOCHITL  (or  XOCHIPILLJ) 
(Five-Flower,  Source  of 
Flowers).  God  of  luck  in 
gaming,  103  ;  Ixtlilton  called 
brother  of,  112 

MADOC.     The  legend  of,  5, 6 


MAHACUTAH  (The  Distinguished 
Name).  One  of  the  first  men 
of  the  Popol  Vuh  myth,  229,  230 

MAIZE-GODS.  Mexican,  85-91  ; 
Peruvian,  295 

MALLINALCAS.    Aztec  tribe,  233 

MAMA  OULLO  HUACA;  Wife  of 
Manco  Ccapac,  256 

MAMA-COCHA  (Mother-sea).  Con- 
ception under  which  the  Peru- 
vians worshipped  the  sea,  306 

MAMACOTA.  Name  given  to  lake 
Titicaca  by  people  of  the 
Collao,  298 

MAMACUNA.  Matrons  who  had 
charge  of  the  Acllacuna,  in 
Peru,  313 

MAMAPACHA  (or  PACHAMAMA). 
The  Peruvian  earth-goddess, 

3°3 
MAMAS      (Mothers).         Tutelary 

spirits  of  the  maize  and  other 

plants  in  Peru,  295 
MAMES.       District  in  Guatemala, 

158 

MAN  OF  THE  SUN.  Quetzalcoatl 
as,  8 1  ;  other  conceptions  of, 

83 

MANCO.  The  Inca  appointed  by 
Pizarro  ;  and  an  oracle,  302-303 
MANCO  CCAPAC.  I.  Divine  being, 
son  of  the  Life-giver  ;  sent  to 
instruct  the  primitive  Peru- 
vians, 255-256 ;  a  legend  in 
connection  with,  256.  II.  The 
first  Inca,  identical  with  the 
foregoing,  282,  283  ;  regarded 
as  son  of  the  sun,  306  ;  a  myth 
of,  320-321 
MAN i.  Mexican  city,  founded  by 

the  Tutul  Xius,  155 
MANNIKINS.      In  the  Kiche  story 
of  the  creation  related  in  the 
Popol  Vuh,  209-210 
MARKHAM,    SIR    CLEMENTS.     On 

Inca  architecture,  269 
MATLATZINCAS.     Aztec  tribe,  233 
MAXTLA.         I.  King  of  the  Tec- 
panecs ;     and    Nezahualcoyotl, 
125-128.      II.  A  noble  ;   in  the 
story  of  the  vicious  princess,  130 
MAYA.     The  most  highly  civilised 
of  ancient  American  peoples,  i, 

353 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


143;  their  culture  erroneously 
stated  to  be  of  Asiatic  origin,  i  ; 
theory  as  to  Toltec  relationship, 
143  ;  sphere  of  the  civilisation, 
144 ;  the  nucleus  of  the  civilisa- 
tion, 144-145,  149  ;  the  dialects, 
145;  origin  of  the  race,  145; 
their  civilisation  self -developed, 
143,  146;  blood  and  cultural 
relationships  with  Nahua,  146- 

147  ;  efforts  at  expansion,  147- 

148  ;    climatic  influence  on  the 
civilisation  and  religion,    148  : 
sources  of  their  history,    148- 
149;  division  of  the  aristocratic 
and  labouring  classes,  150  ;  in- 
fluence of  the  Nahua  invasion, 
151  ;    cleavage  between  Yuca- 
tan   and    Guatemala    peoples, 
151  ;    the  Yucatec  race,   151- 
152 ;     incidents    in    migration 
myths  represent  genuine  expe- 
rience, 152  ;  the  race  in  Guate- 
mala, 157  ;  the  writing  system, 
159-166;  the  manuscripts,  1 60- 
161  ;  the  numeral  system,  165  ; 
the  mythology,   166-169,  207- 
247  ;  the  calendar,  38,  39,  169  ; 
the    pantheon,    168,    170-177  ; 
architecture,  178-198  ;  relation- 
ship of  the  mythology  t«.    iliac 
of   the   Nahua,    166 ;     Dr.    Le 
Plongeon's  theories  as  to,  239 

MAY APAN  .  City-state  in  Yucatan , 
152;  rises  into  prominence,  153, 
155  ;  overthrown  by  allies,  156 

MA  VTA  CCAPAC.  The  fourth  Inca, 
283 

MEAHUAN,  MOUNT.  In  the  Kiche 
myth  of  Vukub-Cakix,  216 

MEDICINE-MEN.  Account  of  the 
methods  of,  among  Peruvians, 

3H-3I5 

METZTLI  (or  YOHUALTICITL)  (The 
Lady  of  Night).  Mexican  god- 
dess of  the  moon,  106  ;  in  myth 
of  Nanahuatl,  93, 106 

MEXICATL  TEOHUATZIN  (Mexican 
Lord  of  Divine  Matters).  Head 
of  the  Aztec  priesthood,  1 16 

MEXICO.  I.  The  city  ;  capital 
of  the  Aztecs,  zxative  name 
Tenochtitlan,  26,  47 ;  origin 

354 


of  the  name,  73  ;  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Acolhuans, 
26 ;  Huitzilopochtli  and,  28, 
73  ;  legends  of  the  foundation 
of,  28-29  ;  at  the  period  of  the 
conquest,  29-30 ;  the  annual 
"  bloodless  battle  "  with  Tlas- 
cala,  48.  II.  The  state  ;  the 
civilisation  of,  i,  9  ;  possibly 
reached  by  early  Norsemen,  5 

MEXICO-TENOCHTITLAN.  Native 
name  of  city  of  Mexico,  29 

MEXITLI  (Hare  of  the  Aloes).  A 
name  of  Huitzilopochtli,  74 

MICTECACIUATL.  Wiie  of  Mict- 
lan,  96 

MlCTLAN       (or       MlCTLANTECUTLl) 

(Lord  of  Hades).  I.  Mexican 
god  of  the  dead  and  the  under- 
world, 37,  76,  95-96  ;  God  A 
probably  identical  with,  173. 
II.  The  abode  of  the  god  Mict- 
lan  ;  Mitla  identified  with,  198. 

v  III.  Village  mentioned  by  Tor- 
quemada,  199 

MIGRATION  MYTHS.  Probably  re- 
flect actual  migrations,  234-235 

MITLA.  Maya  city,  31,  144 ; 
ruins  at,  197-198 ;  identified 
with  Mictlan,  the  Mexican 
Hades,  198  ;  description  of,  by 
Father  Torquemada,  199  ;  de- 
scription of,  by  Father  Burgoa, 
199-206 

Mi  xco ATL  (Cloud  Serpent )  Aztec 
god  of  the  chase,  iio-m  ; 
Camaxtli  identified  with,  in 

MIXB.  Aboriginal  Mexican  race, 
24 

M.IXTECA.  Aboriginal  Mexican 
race,  23  ;  creation-myth  of, 
120-12 1  ;  a  medium  through 
which  Maya  civilisation  passed 
north,  147 

MOCHB.  Place  in  Peru ;  sepulchral 
mound  at,  271 

MOHANES  (or  AGOREROS).  Mem- 
bers of  Peruvian  tribes  who 
claimed  power  as  oracles,  297- 
298,314 

MONENEQUB  (The  Claimer  of 
Prayer).  A  name  of  Te/catli- 
poca,  67 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


.  Mexican  emperor, 
native  name  Motequauhzoma ; 
mentioned,  35,  44 ;  and  the 
coming  of  Cortes,  7  ;  in  the 
story  of  Tlalhuicole,  136-137  ; 
in  the  story  of  Princess  Papan, 
139-142 

M6o,  QUBBN.  The  story  of,  239- 
247 

MOON,  THB.  Mythic  mother  of 
the  Inca  dynasty,  262  ;  temple 
of,  at  Cuzco,  261-262  ;  wife  of 
the  sun,  in  the  mythology  of 
the  Chibchas,  276 

MULUC.     A  minor  Maya  deity,  170 

MUMMIFICATION.  Among  the 
Peruvians,  262-264 


N 


NADAILLAC,  MARQUIS  DB.  Ac- 
count of  the  use  of  quipos,  278- 

279 

NAHUA  (Those  who  live  by  Rule). 
Ancient  Mexican  race,  9  ;  civili- 
sation, features  in,  and  cha- 
racter of,  9,  146,  148  ;  com- 
pared with  Oriental  peoples, 
10  ;  meaning  of  the  name,  10  ; 
place  of  origin,  10-11  ;  route 
of  migrations  to  Mexico,  12  ; 
theory  of  Toltec  influence 
upon,  22 ;  and  cliff-dwellers, 
24-25  ;  territories  occupied  by, 
25 ;  writing  system  of,  34-35  ; 
calendric  system  of,  38-41  ; 
language  of,  42-43  ;  science  of, 

43  ;    form  of  government,  43- 

44  ;    domestic  life  of,   44-45  ; 
distribution  of  the  component 
tribes,   47  ;    authentic  history 
of  the  nation,  48-53  ;   religion, 
54  ;      Tezcatlipoca    and,     67  ; 
influence  of  the  Maya  civilisa- 
tion upon,    147  ;    culture  and 
religion  influenced  by  climatic 
conditions,  148  ;    invade  Maya 
territory,     150-151  ;     influenco 
Maya   cleavage,    151  ;     in   the 
Maya    conflict    in    Guatemala, 
159  ;    the   relationship  of   the 
mythology  of,  to  that  of  the 


Maya,  166  ;    difference  in  sun 

worship  of,  from  Peruvian,  307- 

308 
NAHUATLATOLLI.        The    Nahua 

tongue,  25 
NANAHUATL     (Poor    Leper)     (or 

NANAUATZIN).    Mexican  god  of 

skin  diseases,  93  ;  the  myth  of, 

93  ;    Xolotl  probably  identical 

with,  93 
NANAUATZIN.        Same  as  Nana- 

huatl,  which  see 
NANIHEHECATL.     Form  of  Cjuet- 

zalcoatl,  84 
NATA.     The  Mexican  Noah,  122- 

123 
NAUHOLLIN  (The  Four  Motions). 

Mexican  sacrificial  ceremonies, 

99 
NAUHYOTL.      Toltec  ruler  of  Col- 

huacan, 20 
NEMONTEMI  (unlucky  days).     In 

Mexican  calendar,  39,  40 
NENA.  Wife  of  Nata,  the  Mexican 

Noah, 122-123 
NEXIUHILPILITZTLI     (binding     of 

years).       In  Mexican  calendar, 

39,  4° 

NBXTEPEHUA.  Fiend  in  the  Mexi- 
can Other-world,  38 

NEZAHUALCOYOTL  (Fasting  Coy- 
ote). King  of  Tezcuco  ;  the 
story  of,  125-128 ;  his  en- 
lightened rule,  128  ;  as  a  poet, 
128  ;  his  theology,  128  ;  and 
his  son's  offence,  129 ;  his 
palace,  132  ;  his  villa  of  Tez- 
cotzinco,  133-136 

NEZAHUALPILLI  (The  Hungry 
Chief).  I.  A  manifestation  of 
Tezcatlipoca,  66.  II.  Son  of 
Nezahualcoyotl ;  story  '  of  his 
wife's  crime,  129-132  ;  in  the 
story  of  Princess  Papan,  140 

NiMA-KiCHE.  The  ancestor  of 
the  Kiche  race  ;  the  legend  of, 
158 

NINXOR  -  CARCHAH.  Place  in 
Guatemala ;  mentioned  in  Popoi 
Vuh  myth,  224 

NITKJAPOLOA.  Ceremony  con- 
nected with  worship  of  Centeotl 
the  son, 90 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


NONOHUALCO.      Place  in  Mexico  ; 

Tutul    Xius    may    have    come 

from.  153 
NORSEMEN.     Voyages  of  the,  to 

America,  5 
NUNNERY.     The  ruin  at  Chichcn- 

Itza,  189-190 


OBSEQUIES.  In  Peru ;  a  descrip- 
tion of,  316-317 

OCOSINGO.  Ruined  Maya  city, 
149 

OLLANTA.  Inca  chieftain  ;  in  the 
drama  Apu-Ollanta,  251-253 

OLLANTAY-TAMPU.  Prehistoric 
ruins  at,  250-251 ;  Apu-Ollanta, 
the  drama  legend  of,  251-253 

OMACATL  (Two  Reeds).  Mexican 
god  of  festivity,  112-113 

OMECIUATL.  Mexican  mother  god 
of  the  human  species,  associated 
with  Ometecutli,  103-104.  118  ; 
Xmucane  the  Kiche  equivalent 
of,  236 

OMETECUTLI  (Two-Lord).  Father 
god  of  the  human  species, 
associated  with  Omeciuatl,  103- 
104,  118  ;  Xpiyacoc  the  Kiche 
equivalent  of,  236 

OMETOCHTLI.  I.  A  pulque-god, 
104.  II.  A  day  in  the  Mexican 
calendar,  105 

OPOCHTLI  (The  Left  -  handed). 
Mexican  god  of  fishers  and  bird- 
catchers,  113-114 

ORACLES  in  Peru,  296-297  ;  a 
legend  connected  with  an  oracle, 
302-303 

OTOMI.     Aboriginal  Mexican  race, 

23. 25, 50 

OWEN,  GUTTYN.    Mentioned,  0 
OXFORD  CODEX,  37 


PAAPITI.  Island  on  Lake  Titi- 
caca  ;  Huaina  Ccapac  and  the 
lake-goddess  and,  299 

PACARI  TAMPU  (House  of  the 
Dawn).  Place  of  origin  of 
four  brothers  and  sisters  who 

156 


initiated  the  systems  of  xvorship 
and  civilised  Peru,  305,  307 

PACAW.  A  sorcerer  mentioned 
in  Popol  Vuh  myth,  227 

PACCARISCAS.  Holy  places  of 
origin  of  the  Peruvian  tribes, 
292, 293,  305 

PACHACAMAC.  I.  The  supreme 
divinity  of  the  Incas,  known 
also  as  Pacharurac,  257,  303- 
304;  not  a  primitive  conception, 
257  ;  in  the  local  creation-myth 
of  Irma,  258-259 ;  the  Ccapac 
Raymi  the  national  festival  of, 
267 ;  Yatiri  the  Aymara  name 
for,  299 ;  symbol  of,  in  the  Cori- 
cancha,  304 ;  regarded  as  son  of 
the  sun,  306  ;  daughters  of,  in  the 
Coniraya  myth,  323.  II.  Sacred 
city  of  the  Incas,  310;  ruins  of, 
273  ;  in  the  Coniraya  myth,  322 

PACHACAMAMA  (Earth -Mother). 
Name  given  by  the  Incas  to 
their  conception  of  the  earth,  257 

PACHACTA  UNANCHAC.  Inca  device 
for  determining  the  solstices, 
265-266 

PACHACUTIC  (or  YUPANQUI  PACHA- 
CUTIC)  (He  who  changes  the 
World).  Ninth  Inca;  hi  the 
drama  Apu-Ollanta,  251-252  ; 
defeats  Hastu-huaraca,  282, 
284-285  ;  formerly  known  as 
Yupanqui,  285  ;  his  extensive 
dominion,  286 ;  his  achieve- 
ments as  ruler,  286-287  ;  a  man 
like  the  Mexican  Nezahual- 
coyotl,  291  ;  and  the  legend 
of  the  stones  that  turned 
into  warriors,  294 ;  and  the 
thunder-god,  300 ;  and  the 
conception  of  the  creator,  304  ; 
introduces  sun-worship,  308 ; 
the  vision  of,  317-318 

PACHAMAMA  (or  MAMAPICHA) 
(Earth-Mother).  The  Peruvian 
earth -goddess,  303 

PACHARURAC.  A  name  of  Pacha- 
camac,  which  see 

PACHAYACHACHIC.  A  form  ol 
Pachacamac,  regarded  as  direct 
ruler  of  the  universe,  299,  304; 
Viracocha  called,  307 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


"  PALACE  OF  OWLS."  Ruin  at 
Ake,  186 

PALACE,  THB,  at  Palenque,  183- 
185 

PALENQUE.  Maya  city,  144,  149, 
182-186;  the  Palace  at,  183- 
185;  Temple  of  Inscriptions  at, 
185  ;  Temple  of  the  Sun,  185  ; 
Temple  of  the  Cross,  185  ; 
Temple  of  the  Cross  No.  II,  186; 
"  Tablet  of  the  Cross  "  at,  161, 
185-186 

PALPAN.  Hill  near  Tollan  ;  exca- 
vations at,  34 

PAPANTZIN.  Sister  of  Monte- 
zuma  II  ;  the  story  of  her 
return  from  the  tomb,  139-142 

PAPAZTAC  (The  Nerveless).  A 
pulque-god,  104 

PARIACACA.  I.  A  name  of  the 
Peruvian  thunder-god,  299- 
300  ;  and  the  lake  of  Pariacaca, 
300.  II.  The  lake  of,  300 

PARICACA.  A  hero,  father  of 
Huathiacuri  ;  in  the  Huathia- 
curi  myth,  324-326  ;  in  a  flood- 
myth,  326-327  ;  and  the  Cheque 
Suso  myth,  327 

PARIS  (or  TELLERIO-REMENSIS) 
CODEX, 37 

PATECATL.     A  pulque-god,  104 

f  PATH  OF  THE  DEAD,  THB,"  at 
Teotihuacan,  33 

PAYNE,  E.  J.  On  the  origin  of 
the  Maya  culture,  i  ;  on  the 
origin  of  the  Nahua,  10  ;  on  the 
Toltecs,  21  ;  on  the  Teoyao- 
minqui  fallacy,  88-90 

PERU.  The  civilisation  of,  I, 
248-290 ;  the  country,  248- 
249  ;  the  people,  253-255  ; 
the  mythology,  255-259,  291- 
327  ;  government,  259-260, 
290 ;  laws  and  customs,  264- 
265  ;  the  calendar,  265-266  ; 
the  festivals,  267  ;  architec- 
ture and  architectural  remains, 
259.  268-273  J  irrigation  works, 
273  ;  no  writing  or  numeral 
system,  278  ;  craftsmanship, 
259,  279-281  ;  histcry,  281- 
290  •  religion,  291-31.-)  ;  human 
sacrifice,  313 


PETEN-ITZA.  Maya  city,  founded 
by  a  prince  of  Chichen-Itza, 
156  ;  the  incident  of  Cort6s  and 
his  horse  at,  195-196  ;  a  city 
"  filled  with  idols,"  196 

PETLAC.  Place  mentioned  in 
myth  of  Huitzilopochtli's  origin, 
72 

PIEDRAS  NEGRAS.  Ruined  Maya 
city,  149 

"  PIGEON  HOUSB."  Ruin  at 
Uxmal,  194 

PIGUERAO.  Peruvian  deity, 

brother  of  Apocatequil ;  in  a 
creation-myth,  301 

PILLAN.  Thunder-god  of  abo- 
rigines of  Chile,  analogous  to 
Tlaloc,  78 

PILLCO-PUNCU.  Door  to  be  passed 
before  reaching  Rock  of  Titi- 
caca,  311 

PINTURAS.  Mexican  hieroglyphs, 
or  picture-writing,  7,  34-37 

PlPIL  DIALECT,  145 

PIQUI-CHAQUI  (Flea-footed).  Ser- 
vant of  Ollanta,  251 

PISSAC.  Ruined  Inca  fortress  at, 
250 

PITU  SALLA.  Guardian  of  Yma 
Sumac,  253 

PIZARRO,  FRANCISCO.  Conqueror 
of  Peru,  255 

PIZARRO,  PEDRO.  Cousin  of 
Francisco  Pizarro,  262 

"  PLACE  OF  FRUITS."  Valley  in 
which  Tollan  stood,  14 

PLEIADES.  Kiche  myth  of  the 
origin  of,  215 

POCOMAMS.  District  in  Guate- 
mala, 158 

POPOCATEPETL.  The  mountain  3 
sacred  to  Tlaloc,  77 

POPOLCAN.  Aboriginal  Mexican 
race,  24 

"  POPOL  VUH  "  (The  Collection  of 
Written  Leaves).  A  volume  of 
Maya-Kiche  mythology  and  his- 
tory, 152, 157, 158  ;  description, 
207-209  ;  genuine  character, 
208  ;  probable  date  of  composi- 
tion, 235  ;  antiquity,  236,  238  j 
thegodsandothersmentionedin, 
236-237  ;  probably  a  metrical 

357 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


composition  originally,  237- 
238.  The  first  book  :  The  crea- 
tion, 209  ;  the  downfall  oi  man, 
209-210  ;  story  of  Vukub-Cakix, 
210-213 ;  the  undoing  ol 
Zipacna,  213-216;  the  over- 
throw of  Cabrakan,  216-219  ; 
the  creation-story  probably  the 
result  of  the  tusion  of  several 
myths,  235.  The  second  book  : 
Hunhun-Apu  and  Vukub-Hun- 
apu  descend  to  the  Under- 
world, 220-221;  Hunhun-Apu 
and  Xquiq,  222 ;  birth  and 
exploits  of  Hun-Apu  and 
Xbalanque,  223-224  ;  the  hero- 
brothers  in  Xibalba,  and  the 
discomfiture  of  the  Lords  of 
Hell,  225-227  ;  the  conception 
in  this  book  common  to  other 
mythologies,  228  ;  the  savage 
dread  of  death  probably  respon- 
sible for  the  conception  of  its 
vanquishment,  228 ;  other 
sources  of  the  myth,  228.  The 
third  book  :  Man  is  created, 

229  ;    woman  is  created,  230  ; 
gods  are   vouchsafed  to  man, 

230  ;    Tohil  provides  fire,  230- 

231  ;  the  race  is  confounded  in 
speech  and  migrates,  231  ;   the 
sun  appears,  231  ;  death  of  the 
first   men,    232 ;     resemblance 
of  the  myth  to  those  of  other 
American  peoples,  232 ;    simi- 
larity   of   the    migration-story 
to   others,    233-234 ;   probable 
origin  of  the  migration-myth, 
234-235.     The  fourth  book,  238- 

239 

POTOSI.     Peruvian  city,  248 
POWEL.    History  of  Wales,  cited,  5 

POYAUHTECATL,          MOUNT.          In 

Quetzalcoatl  myth,  65 

PPAPP-HOL-CHAC  (The  House  of 
Heads  and  Lightnings).  Ruin 
at  Itzamal,  187 

PRIESTHOOD,  MEXICAN,  114-117  ; 
power  of,  114 ;  beneficent 
ministrations  of,  113  ;  revenues 
of,  115  ;  education  conducted 
by,  115-116;  orders  of,  116  ; 
ngorous  existence  of,  116-117 


PUCARA.     Peruvian  fortress-city ; 

leader  in  the  Huanca  alliance, 

282 

PUEBLO  INDIANS.      Probably  re- 
lated to  Nahua,  24 
PULQUE.     The  universal  Mexican 

beverage,  45 
PULQUE-GODS,  104-105 
PUMA-PUNCU.     Door  to  be  passed 

before  reaching  Rock  of  Titi- 

caca, 311 
PUMA-SNAKE.    Mixtec  deer-god; 

in  creation-myth,  120 
PUMATAMPU.    Place  in  Peru ;  Inca 

Roca  defeats  the  Conti-suyu  at, 

283 
PURUNPACHA.      The  period  after 

the  deluge  when  there  was  no 

king, in  Peru,  324 
PYRAMID  OF  SACRIFICE.     Ruin  at 

Uxmal,  194 

Q 

QUAAQUA.  Sun-god  of  the  Salish 
Indians,  83 

QUACAMAYO  BIRDS.  In  a  myth  of 
theCanaris  Indians,  319 

QUAQUIUTL.      Indian  tribe,  83 

QUATLAPANQUI  (The  Head- 
splitter).  A  pulque-god,  104 

QUATAVITA,  THE  LAKE  OF.  The 
Chibchas  and,  276 

QUAUHQUAUHTINCHAN    (HoUSC    Of 

the  Eagles).        Sacrifice  to  the 

sun  in,  99 
QUAUHTITLAN.      Place  mentioned 

in     legend     of     QuetzalcoatPs 

journey  from  Tollan,  64 
QUAUHXICALLI      (Cup      of      the 

Eagles).       Mexican     sacrificial 

stone,  99,  100 
QUAUITLEUA.    Festival  of  Tlaloc, 

77 

QUAUITLICAC.  In  myth  of  Huit- 
zilopochtli's  origin,  71,  72 

QUEMADA.  Place  in  Mexico ; 
cyclopean  ruins  at,  32 

QUENTI-PUNCU.  Door  to  be 
passed  before  reaching  Rock  of 
Titicaca,  311 

QUETZALCOATL  ("  Feathered  Ser- 
pent "  or  "  Feathered  Staff  ") 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


The  Kukulcan  of  the  Maya, 
god  of  the  sun,  the  wind,  and 
thunder,  common  to  Mexican 
and  Maya  mythologies  ;  Mexi- 
can legend  of,  6-7  ;  probably 
cognate  with  Yetl,  12  ;  king 
of  the  Toltecs  in  Nahua  myth, 
21  ;  Tezcatlipoca  and,  60,  79  ; 
Huitzilopochtli,  Tezcatlipoca, 
and  Tlacahuepan  plot  against, 
60 ;  quits  Tollan  and  proceeds  to 
Tlapallan,  64-65,  79  ;  probably 
a  god  of  pre-Nahua  people,  78  ; 
"  Father  of  the  Toltecs,"  79  ; 
enlightened  sway  as  ruler  of 
Tollan,  79  ;  consequences  of 
his  exile,  79 ;  legend  of,  in 
connection  with  the  morning 
star,  80,  96  ;  whether  rightly 
considered  god  of  the  sun,  80  ; 
conception  of,  as  god  of  the 
air,  80  ;  as  wind-god  and  god 
of  fire  and  light,  80-81  ;  whether 
originating  from  a  "  culture- 
hero,"  8 1  ;  the  "  St.  Thomas  " 
idea,  81  ;  as  Man  of  the  Sun, 
81-82  ;  as  usually  represented, 
82  ;  regarded  as  a  liberator, 
82  ;  various  conceptions  of, 
82-84,  l&7  ',  probable  northern 
origin,  83  ;  Hueymatzin  and, 
84  ;  the  worship  of,  84-85  ; 
the  priesthood  of,  116  ;  place 
in  the  Mexican  calendar,  122  ; 
vogue  among  Maya,  144,  167  ; 
regarded  as  foreign  to  the  soil 
in  Mexico,  167  ;  differences  in 
the  Maya  and  Nahua  concep- 
tions of,  167  ;  called  Kukulcan 
by  the  Maya,  167  ;  called 
Gucumatz  in  Guatemala,  167, 
236  ;  God  B  probably  is,  173' 

QUETZALPETLATL.  Female  coun- 
terpart of  Quetzalcoatl,  79 

QUICHE.    Same  as  Kiche,  which  see 

QUICHUA.  Peruvian  race,  254- 
255  ;  fusion  of,  with  Aymara, 
285-286 

QUICHUA-AYMARA.  The Inca  race. 
See  Incas 

QUICHUA  CHINCHAY-SUYU.  One 
of  the  four  racial  divisions  ot 
ancient  Peru,  255 


QUINAMES.  Earth-giants ;  in 
Toltec  creation-myth,  120 

QUINEVEYAN.  Grotto,  mentioned 
in  Aztec  migration-myth,  233 

QUINUAMAMA.  Guardian  spirit 
of  the  quinua  plant,  in  Peru, 

295 

QUIPOS.  Cords  used  by  the  Incas 
for  records  and  communica- 
tions, 278-279  ;  account  of  the 
use  of,  by  the  Marquis  de 
Nadaillac,  278-279 

QUITO.  Sometime  centre  of  the 
northern  district  of  Peru,  286, 
289 

R 

RAXA-CAKULHA.       A  sub-god  of 

Hurakan,  237 
RELIGION.     I.  Of  the  Nahua,  54- 

55  ;    the  worship  of  one  god, 

58-59.       II.  Of  the  Peruvians, 

291  ;    inferior  to  the  Mexican, 

248  ;  the  legend  relating  to  the 

evolution  of,  305-306 
RIOPAMPA.     Sometime  centre  of 

the  northern  district  of  Peru, 

286 
ROSNY,  LEON  DE.     Research  on 

the  Maya  writing  by,  161-162 
RUMI-NAUI.        Inca  general ;   in 

the   drama   Apu-Ollanta,   252- 

253 

S 

SACRIFICE,  HUMAN.  In  connec- 
tion with  Teotleco  festival,  69  ; 
with  Toxcatl  festival,  69-70  ; 
with  Tlaloc,  76-77  ;  displaced 
by  "  substitution  of  part  for 
whole,"  85,  116;  in  the  Xala- 
quia  festival,  87  ;  in  connection 
with  Xipe,  92 ;  Xolotl  the 
representative  of,  93  ;  in  wor- 
ship of  the  planet  Venus,  96  ; 
in  sun-worship,  98-100,  101  ; 
the  keynote  of  Nahua  mytho 
logy,  1 66  ;  among  the  Maya, 
1 66  ;  at  Mitla,  described  by 
Father  Burgoa,  202-203  ;  among 
the  Chibchas,  276  ;  in  Peru,  313 

SACRIFICED  PRINCESS,  the  legend 
of  the,  123-134 

359 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


SACSAHUAMAN.  I nca  fortress;  the 
ruins  of.  250;  built  by  Pacha- 
cutic.  287 

SAHAGUN,  FATHER  BERNARDINO. 
His  work  on  Mexican  lore,  56- 
57 ;  account  ol  the  Teotleco 
festival,  68-69  ;  account  oi  a 
confession  ceremony,  106-108 

SALISH  INDIANS,  83 

"  SALVADOR, "  THB.  A  curious 
Inca  vase,  281 

SAN  CARLOS.  The  University  oi, 
in  Guatemala  ;  the  lost  Popol 
Vuh  found  in,  207 

SAN  LOKKNZO.  Village  ;  in  a 
myth  oi  Paricaca,  327 

SARAMAMA.  Guardian  spirit  oi 
the  maize  plant,  in  Peru,  295 

SCHKLLHAS,  DR.  And  the  Maya 
writing,  162  ;  and  names  oi 
the  Maya  deities,  168 

SCHERZER,  DR.  C.  Finds  the  lost 
Popol  Vuh,  207 

SEA.  Worshipped  by  the  Peru- 
vians as  Mama-cocha,  306 

SELER,  DR.  On  Quetzalcoatl,  80- 
81  ;  on  Xolotl,  93-94  ;  and  the 
Maya  writing,  162,  164  ;  on 
God  K,  175-176  ;  on  God  P, 
177  ;  on  Mitla  and  the  origin 
of  the  American  race,  198 

SERPENT.  Varied  significance  of 
the,  72,  74,  76  ;  association  of 
Huitzilopochtli  with,  72-73  ; 
associated  with  the  bird,  73 

SEVEN   CAVERNS.      Myth  of  the, 

»23 

SIERRA  NEVADA  (Mountain  ot 
Snow).  In  legend  oi  Quetzal- 
coatl's  migration,  65 

SINCHI  ROCA  (Wise  Chief).  The 
second  Inca,  283 

SKINNER,  J.  Account  of  the  dis- 
covery of  a  wooden  cross,  274- 
275  ;  on  mohunf!>,  297-298  ; 
account  of  the  methods  of 
medicine  men  in  Peru,  314  315; 
account  oi  obsequies  among  a 
Peruvian  tribe,  315-  317 

SLAALEKAM.  Sun  god  oi  the 

Sahsh  Indians,  83 

SONDOR-HUASI.  An  inca  building 
bearing  a  thatched  tout,  *6y 

360 


SOTO,  HERNANDO  DB.    Mentioned, 

SQUIER,  E.  G.  On  the  Corican- 
cha, 261 

STEPHENS,  J.  L.  Legend  of  the 
dwari  related  by,  192-194 ; 
story  oi  the  unknown  city,  195 

STONES,  WORSHIP  OF,  in  Peru, 
292-293 

SUAREZ.  Lorillard  City  dis- 
covered by,  195 

SUN.  Prophecy  as  to  coming  of 
white  men  irom,  7  ;  symbolised 
as  a  serpent  by  Hopi  Indians, 
82  ;  pictured  as  abode  of 
Quetzalcoatl,  82  ;  "  father  " 
oi  Totonacs,  82  ;  Quaquiutl 
myth  respecting,  83-84  ;  wor- 
ship of  the,  in  Mexico,  97-102  ; 
the  supreme  Mexican  deity, 
97  ;  the  heart  his  special  sacri- 
fice. 97  ;  blood  his  especial 
food,  98  ;  destruction  of  succes- 
sive suns,  98  ;  human  sacrifice 
to, in  Mexico,  98-100  ;  asgodof 
warriors,  99  ;  conception  of  the 
warrior's  after-life  with,  101  ; 
the  feast  of  Totec,  the  chief 
Mexican  festival  of,  101-102; 
the  supreme  Maya  deity,  171  ; 
in  Inca  creation-myth,  258, 
305  ;  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Chibchas,  276  ;  worship  of,  in 
Peru,  306,  307-313  ;  the  posses- 
sions oi,  and  service  rendered 
to.  308-309  ;  and  the  Rock  of 
Titicaca,  309-311  ;  especially 
worshipped  by  the  aged,  310; 
the  Intip-Raymi  festival  of, 
311-312;  the  Citoc-Raymi 

.  festival,  312-313  ;  human  sacri- 
fice to,  in  Peru,  313 

SUNRISE,  LAND  OF.  In  early 
American  behei,  6 

"  SUNS,"  THE  FOUR.  In  Aztec 
theology,  55 

SUSUR-HUGAIO.  A  fountain ;  and 
the  vision  oi  Vupauqui,  318 

T 

TABASCO.        Same  as  Tiapallan, 

whi^h  set 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


"TABLET  OF  THE  CROSS,"  161,  185- 
186 

TANCAH.     Maya  city,  8 

TAPAC-YAURI.  The  royal  sceptre 
of  the  Incas,  321 

TARAHUMARE.  Mexican  tribe  ; 
and  cliff -dwellings.  25 

TARMA.  Place  in  Peru;  Huanca 
defeated  at,  285 

TARPUNTAITA-CUMA.  Incas  who 
conducted  sacrifice,  311 

TATA  (Our  Father).  A  name  oi 
the  Mexican  fire-god,  95 

TAYASAL.     Maya  city,  196 

TEATLAHUIANI.  A  pulque -god,  104 

TECPANECS.  Confederacy  of 
Nahua  tribes,  26,  50 ;  signifi- 
cance of  the  name,  26,  50 ; 
rivals  of  the  Chichimecs,  27  ; 
of  Huexotzinco,  defeated  by 
Tlascaltecs,  49  ;  Aztecs  allies 
of,  51  ;  growth  of  their  empire, 
51  ;  conquer  Tezcuco  and  Chi- 
chimecs, 51 

TECUMBALAM.  Bird  in  the  Kiche 
story  of  the  creation,  209 

TELPOCHTLI  (The  Youthful  War- 
rior). A  name  of  Tez- 
catlipoca,  66 

TEMACPALCO.  Place  mentioned 
in  the  myth  of  Quetzalcoatl's 
journey  to  Tlapallan,  65 

TEMALACATL.  The  Mexican 
gladiatorial  stone  of  combat,  too 

TEMPLE  OF  THE  CROSS  No.  I, 
THE,  at  Palenque,  185,  186 ; 
No.  II,  186 

TEMPLE  OF  INSCRIPTIONS,  THB, 
at  Palenque,  185 

TEMPLE  OF  THE  SUN,  THB.  I.  At 
Palenque,  185.  II.  At  Tikal, 
196 

TKNAYUCAN.    Chichimec  city,  26 

TENOCHTITLAN.  Same  as  Mexico, 
which  see 

Teu-Amoxtli  (Divine  Book).  A 
Nahua  native  chronicle,  45-46 

TEOCALJLI.     The  Mexican  temple, 

~3° 

TEOCUINANI.     Mountain ;  sacred 

to  Tlaloc,  77 

TKOHUATZIN.  High -priest  oi 
Huitzilupochtli,  75 


TEOTIHUACAN.  Sacred  city  ol 
the  Toltecs,  18,  47  ;  the  fiend 
at  the  convention  at,  18  ;  the 
Mecca  of  the  Nahua  races,  32  ; 
architectural  remains  at,  32,  33  ; 
rebuilt  by  Xolotl,  Chichimec 
king,  33;  Charnay's  excavations 
at,  33 

TEOTLECO  (Coming  of  the  Gods). 
Mexican  festival,  68-69 

TEOY.\OMINQUI.  Name  given  to 
the  image  of  Chicomecohuatl 
by  early  investigators,  88  ; 
Payne  on  the  error,  88-90 

TEPEOLOTLEC.  A  distortion  of 
the  name  of  Tepeyollotl,  102 

TEPEYOLLOTL  iHeart  of  the  Moun- 
tain). A  god  of  desert  places, 
102-103  ;  called  Tepeolotlec, 

102 

TEPOXTECATL.  The  pulque -god 
of  Tepoztlan,  105,  117 

TEPOZTLAN.     Mexican  city,  105 

TEQUECHMECAUIANI.  A  pulque- 
god.  104 

TEQUIUA.  Disguise  oi  Tezcatli- 
poca,  63 

TEKNAUX-COMPANS,  H.     Cited,  4 

TETEOINNAN  (Mother  of  the  Gods). 
Mexican  maize -goddess,  known 
also  as  Tocitzin,  and  identical 
with  Centeotl  the  mother, 
85.90 

TEZCATLIPOCA  (Fiery  Mirror). 
Same  as  Titlacahuan  and  Tla- 
matzincatl.  The  Mexican  god 
of  the  air,  the  Jupiter  of  the 
Nahua  pantheon,  37,  59,  67  ; 
tribal  god  of  the  Tezcucans, 
59  ;  development  ot  the  concep- 
tion, 59-60 ;  in  legends  of  the 
overthrow  of  Tollan,  60  ,  adver- 
sary of  Quetzaleoatl,  60,  79  ; 
plots  against  Quetzalcoatl.  and 
overcomes  him,  60-01  ;  as 
Toueyo,  and  the  daughter  of 
Uemac,  61-62  ;  and  the  dance 
at  the  least  in  Tollan,  03  ;  as 
Tequiua.  and  the  garden  oi 
Xtchitla,  63  ;  and  the  legeiul 
of  the  amusing  infant  and  the 
pestilence,  03  64  ;  as  Nezahual- 
pilli,  Ob  ;  aa  Yaoum,  06  ;  aa 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


Telpochtli,  66 ;  as  usually 
depicted,  66  ;  Aztec  conception 
of,  as  wind-god,  66  ;  as  Yoalli 
Ehecatl,  66 ;  extent  and 
development  of  th«  cult  of, 
67-68  ;  as  Moneneque,  67  ;  and 
the  Teotleco  festival,  68-69  ; 
the  Toxcatl  festival  of,  69-70, 
74  ;  in  the  character  of  Tlazol- 
teotl,  107,  108 

TEZCOTZINCO.  The  villa  of  Neza- 
hualcoyotl,  133-136 

TEZCUCO.  I.  Chichimec  city,  26, 
47  ;  rivalry  with  Azcapozaico, 
49 ;  its  hegemony,  49 ;  conquered 
by  Tecpanecs,  51  ;  allied  with 
Aztecs,  52 ;  Tezcatlipoca  the 
tribal  god,  59 ;  the  story 
of  Nerahualcoyotl,  the  prince 
of,  125-128.  II.  Lake,  26  ; 
in  legend  of  the  foundation  of 
Mexico,  28  ;  the  cities  upon, 

47.  49-5° 

TEZOZOMOC,  F.  DE  A.  On  Mexican 
mythology,  58 

THEOZAPOTLAN.  Mexican  city, 
203 

THLINGIT.     Indian  tribe,  83 

THOMAS,  PROFESSOR  C.  Research 
on  Maya  writing,  162 ;  on 
GodL,  176 

THOMAS,  ST.  The  Apostle ; 
Cortes  believed  to  be,  7  ;  asso- 
ciated with  the  Maya  cross,  187, 
275  ;  and  the  wooden  cross 
found  in  the  valley  of  the 
Chichas,  274 

THONAPA.  Son  of  the  creator  in 
Peruvian  myth  ;  in  connection 
with  stone-worship,  293  ;  myths 

of,  319-32° 

THUNDER-GOD,  Peruvian,  299-302 
TIAHUANACO.  Prehistoric  city 
of  the  Andeans,  249-250 ;  the 
great  doorway  at,  249  ;  in  a 
legend  of  Manco  Ccapac,  256  • 
in  Inca  creation- myth,  258  ;  and 
legend  of  Thonapa  the  Civiliser, 

293 
TICOTZICATZIN.       In  the  story  of 

Princess  Papan,  140 
TIKAL.    Maya  city  ;  architectural 

remains  at,  196 
362 


TITICACA.  I.  Lake,  249  ;  settle- 
ments of  the  Quichua-Aymara 
on  the  shores  of,  254  ;  Manco 
Ccapac  and  Mama  Oullo  Huaca 
descend  to  earth  near,  256 ; 
regarded  by  Peruvians  as  place 
where  men  and  animals  were 
created,  298  ;  called  Mamacota 
by  people  of  the  Collao,  298  ; 
idols  connected  with,  298-299. 
II.  Island  on  Lake  Titicaca  ; 
the  most  sacred  of  the  Peruvian 
shrines,  270  ;  ruined  palace  on, 
270  ;  sacred  rock  on,  the  pac- 
carisca  of  the  sun,  293,  309 ; 
sun-worship  and  the  Rock  oi 
Titicaca,  309-311  ;  the  Inca 
Tupac  and  the  Rock,  309-310  ; 
effectontheisland  of  the  Inca  wor- 
ship of  the  Rock,  310;  pilgrimage 
to,  310-311  ;  Thonapa  on,  320 

TITLACAHUAN.  Same  as  Tezcatli  • 
poca,  which  see 

TITLACAHUAN-TEZCATLIPOCA,  123 

TIYA-MANACU.  Town  in  Peru  ; 
Thonapa  at,  320 

TLACAHUEPAN.  Mexican  deity  ; 
plots  against  Quetzalcoatl,  60 ; 
and  the  legend  of  the  amusing 
infant  and  the  pestilence,  63-64 

TLACHTLI.  National  ball-game  of 
the  Nahua  and  Maya,  33,  220, 
224,227 

TLACOPAN.  Mexican  city,  26,  50 ; 
Aztecs  allied  with,  52 

TLAELQUANI  (Filth-eater).  A 
name  of  Tlazolteotl,  which  see 

TLALHUICOLE.  Tlascalan  war- 
rior ;  the  story  of,  136-138 

TLALOC.  The  Mexican  rain-god, 
or  god  of  waters,  29,  75  ;  and  the 
foundation  of  Mexico,  29  ;  in 
association  withHuitzilopochtli, 
74  ;  as  usually  represented,  75- 

76  ;    espoused   to   Chalchihuit- 
licue,  75  ;   Tlalocs  his  offspring, 
75 ;     Kiche   god   Hurakan   his 
prototype,  76  ;    manifestations 
of,  76  ;  festivals  of,  77  ;  human 
sacrifice  in  connection  with,  76- 

77  ;    and  Atamalqualiztli  festi- 
val, 77-78  ;  similarities  to,  in 
other  mythologies,  78 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


TLALOCAN      (The      Country      of 

Tlaloc ).    Abode  of  Tlaloc,  76 
TLALOCS.         Gods  of  moisture  ; 

and  Huemac  II,  16  ;    offspring 

of  Tlaloc,  75 
TLALXICCO  (Navel  of  the  Earth). 

Name  of  the  abode  of  Mictlan, 

~95 

TLAMATZINCATL.       Same  as  Tez- 

catlipoca,  which  see 

TLAPALLAN  (The  Country  ol 
Bright  Colours).  Legendary 
region,  1 1  ;  Nahua  said  to  have 
originated  at,  n  ;  the  Toltecs 
and,  ii  ;  Quetzalcoatl  proceeds 
to,  from  Tollan,  64-65,  79 

TLAPALLAN,  HUEHUE  (Very  Old 
Tlapallan).  In  Toltec  creation- 
myth,  1 19 

TLAPALLANTZINCO.  Place  in 
Mexico;  Toltecs  at,  12 

TLASCALA(orTLAXCALLAN).   Mexi- 

can  city,  47, 48 ;  and  the  "  blood- 
less battle"  with  "Mexico,  48, 
98, 99 ;  decline,  49 
TLASCALANS.  Mexican  race, 
offshoot  of  the  Acolhuans,  26  ; 
helped  Cortfes  against  Aztecs, 

26,47 
TLAUIZCALPANTECUTLI    (Lord    of 

the  Dawn).  Name  of  the  planet 

Venus;    myth  of   Quetzalcoatl 

and,  80, 96 ;  Quetzalcoatl  called, 

84 ;     worship   of,    96 ;    in  the 

Mexican  calendar,  96 
TLAXCALLAN.     Same  as  Tlascala, 

which  see 
TLAZOLTEOTL  (God  of  Ordure)  (or 

TLAELQUANI).   Mexican  goddess 

of  confession,  106-108 
TLENAMACAC   (Ordinary  Priests). 

Lesser  order   of    the    Mexican 

priesthood,  116 
TLOQUE  NAHUAQUB  (Lord  of  All 

Existence).     Toltec  deity,  119 
TOBACCO.     Use    of,    among    the 

Nahua,  45 
TOCHTEPEC.      Place    in    Mexico; 

Toltecs  at,  12 
TOCITZIN  (Our  Grandmother).  See 

Teteoinnan 
TOHIL  (The  Rumbler).     Form  of 

Quetzalcoatl,    84 ;    guides  th« 


Kiche-Maya  to  their  first  city 
152  ;  the  god  assigned  tc 
Balam-Quitze  in  the  Kiche 
myth  of  the  creation,  230 ; 
gives  fire  to  the  Kiche,  230-231 ; 
turned  into  stone,  231 

TOLLAN.  Toltec  city,  modern 
Tula ;  founded,  13,  26 ;  its 
magnificence,  14  ;  afflicted  by 
the  gods,  16-17  ;  Huehuetzin's 
rebellions,  18,  19  ;  overthrown, 
19  ;  Charnay's  excavations  at, 
34  ;  Tezcatlipoca  and  the  over- 
throw of,  60 ;  Quetzalcoatl 
leaves,  64,  79 

TOLLANTZINCO.  City  of  the 
Acolhuans,  48  ;  Toltecs  at,  12 

TOLTECS.  First  Nahua  immi- 
grants to  Mexico,  ii  ;  whether 
a  real  or  a  mythical  race, 
ii,  20-22;  at  Tlapallan,  n, 
12  ;  migration  route,  12  ;  their 
migration  a  forced  one,  12 ; 
imaginative  quality  of  their 
myths,  13  ;  elect  a  king,  14  ; 
progress  in  arts  and  crafts.  14, 
23  ;  under  plagues,  17  ;  their 
empire  destroyed,  19,  20  ;  and 
the  civilisation  of  Central 
America,  20 ;  Dr.  Brinton's 
theory,  21  ;  Quetzalcoatl  king 
of,  21  ;  possible  influence  upon 
Nahua  civilisation,  22  ;  Acol- 
huans may  have  been,  26 ; 
Tezcatlipoca  opposes,  and  plots 
against,  60-65  ;  and  creation- 
myth  recounted  by  Ixtlilxochitl, 
119;  theory  that  the  Maya 
were,  143 

TONACACIUATL  (Lady  of  out 
Flesh).  A  name  of  Omeciuatl, 
which  see 

TONACATECUTLI  (Lord  of  our 
Flesh).  A  name  of  Ometecutli, 
which  see 

TONALAMATL  (Book  of  the  Calen- 
dar), 107 

TORITO.  A  bird-maiden  ;  in  the 
myth  of  origin  of  the  Canaris, 
319 

TORQUEMADA,        FATHER.  Hi! 

work  on  Mexican  lore,  57  ;  on 
Mitla,  199 

363 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


TOTEC  (Our  Great  Chief).  A  sun- 
god,  101-102  ;  his  feast,  the 
chief  solar  festival,  101-102 

TOTEMISM.  Among  the  primitive 
Peruvians,  291-292 

TOTONACS.  Aboriginal  Mexican 
race,  23 ;  and  the  sun, 
82 

TOUEVO.  Tezcatlipoca's  disguise, 
61-63 

TOVEYO.  Toltec  sorcerer  ;  and 
the  magic  drum,  16 

TOXCATL.  Festival ;  of  Tez- 
catlipoca,  69-70  ;  of  Huitzilo- 
pochtli,  74 

TOXILMOLPILIA.  Mexican  calendar 
ceremony  ;  and  the  "  native 
dread  of  the  last  day,  41 

TROANO  CODEX.  Maya  manu- 
script, 1 60  ;  Dr.  Le  Plongeon 
and  the  reference  to  Queen  M6o 
in, 246 

TUCUMAN  (World's  End).  Name 
given  by  the  Quichua-Aymara 
to  their  land  of  origin,  254 

TULAN  (or  TULAN-ZUIVA).  City  ; 
the  starting-point  of  the  Kiche 
migrations,  157-158,  231  ;  the 
Kiche  arrive  at,  and  receive 
their  gods,  230  ;  parallel  with 
the  Mexican  Chicomoztoc,  230  ; 
the  Kiche  confounded  in  their 
speech  at,  231 

TUMIPAMPA.  Sometime  centre  of 
the  northern  district  of  Peru, 
286, 289,  290 

TUPAC-ATAU-HUALLPA  (The  Sun 
makes  Good  Fortune).  Son  of 
Huaina  Ccapac,  289 

TUPAC-YUPANQUI  (Bright).  Tenth 
Inca,  son  of  Pachacutic,  252- 
253,  287-288 ;  achievements 
as  ruler,  287  ;  and  the  Huar- 
cans,  288  ;  and  the  Rock  of 
Titicaca,  309-310 

TUTUL  Xius.  Ruling  caste 
among  the  Itzaes  ;  found  Ziyan 
Caan  and  Chichen-Itza,  153  ; 
expelled  from  Chichen-Itza  by 
Cocomes,  153  ;  settle  in  Poton- 
chan,  build  Uxmal,  and  regain 
power,  154  ;  again  overthrown, 
and  found  Mani,  155  ;  finally 

364 


assist  in  conquering  the  Co- 
comes,  156 

TZITZIMIMES.  Demons  attendant 
on  Mictlan,  90 

TZOMPANTITLAN.  Place  men- 
tioned in  the  myth  of  Huitzilo- 
pochtli's  origin,  71 

TZOMPANTLI  (Pyramid  of  Skulls). 
Minor  temple  of  Huitzilopochtli, 

31 
TZUNUNIHA  (House  of  the  Water). 

One  of  the  first  women  of  the 

Popol  Vuh  myth,  230 
TZUTUHILS.        A  Maya  people  of 

Guatemala,  158.  159 


U 

UAYAYAB.  Demon  who  presided 
over  the  nemontemi  (unlucky 
days),  177  ;  God  N  identified 
with, 177 

UEMAC.  Tezcatlipoca  and  the 
daughter  of,  61-63 

UITZLAMPA.  Place  in  Mexico; 
in  myth  of  Huitzilopochtli's 
origin,  72 

URCO-INCA.  Inca  superseded  by 
Pachacutic,  284 

URICAECHRA,  M.  His  collection 
of  Chibcha  antiquities,  277 

UXMAL.  Mexican  city,  founded 
byTutulXius,  154;  abandoned, 
155;  ruins  at,  191-194;  primi- 
tive type  of  its  architecture,  194 


VATICAN  MSS.,  37  ;  description  of 
the  journey  of  the  soul  in, 37-38 

VEGA,  GARCILASSO  EL  INCA  DE  LA. 
Hist,  des  Incas,  cited,  7  ;  on  the 
gods  of  the  early  Peruvians,  291 

VENUS.  The  planet ;  worship  of, 
96-97;  the  only  star  worshipped 
by  Mexicans,  96 ;  Camaxtli 
identified  with,  in  ;  temple  of, 
at  Cuzco,  262 

VERA  CRUZ.  Quetzalcoatl  lands 
at,  6 

VERAPAZ.  District  in  Guatemala, 
158 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


VETANCURT,  A.  DB.     On  Mexican 

mythology,  58 
VILLA -GOTO.         Mountain  ;    in  a 

Peruvian  flood-myth,  323-324 

VlLLAGUTIERRB,       J.       DE       SOTO- 

MAYOR.  And  the  prophecy  of 
Chi  Ian  Balam,  8 

VioLLET-LE-Dyc,  E.  On  the 
ruined  palace  at  Mi tla,  197 

VIRACOCHA.  I.  Eighth  Inca, 284, 
318.  II.  Peruvian  deity  ;  temple 
of,  at  Cacha,  270  ;  regarded  as 
son  of  the  sun,  306 ;  worshipped 
by  Quichua-Aymara  as  a  culture 
hero,and  called  Pachayachachic, 
307.  III. A higherclassof sacred 
objects  of  the  Peruvians,  294. 
IV.  Name  given  to  any  more 
than  usually  sacred  being,  301 

VITZILLOPOCHTLI.  Same  as 
Huitzilopochtli ;  in  an  Aztec 
migration-myth,  233 

Voc.  A  bird,  the  messenger  of 
Hurakan  ;  in  Popol  Vuh  myth, 
225 

VOTAN.  Maya  god,  identical 
with  Tepeyollotl  ;  God  L  prob- 
ably is,  176 

VUKUB-CAKIX  (Seven-times-the- 
colour-of -fire).  A  sun-and-moon 
god  (Dr.  Seler);  in  a  Kiche 
myth  recounted  in  the  Popol 
Vuh,  210-213 ;  possibly  an 
earth-god,  237 

VUKUB-CAME.  One  of  the  rulers 
of  Xibalba,  the  Kiche  Hades, 

22O,  221,  224 

VUKUB-HUNAPU.  Son  of  Xpiya- 
coc  and  Xmucane  ;  in  the  myth 
in  the  second  book  of  the  Popol 
Vuh,  220-221,  224,  225,  227 

W 

*'  WALLCM  OLUM."  Records  of 
the  Leni-Lenape  Indians ;  a 
migration-myth  in,  resembles 
Kiche  and  Aztec  myths,  233- 

234 
WiND-NiNE-CAVB.    Mixtec  deity; 

in  creation-myth,  120-121,  122 
WIND-NINE-SNAKB.  Mixtecdcity; 

in  creation -myth,  120-121, 122 


WOMEN  OF  THE  SUN.        Women 

dedicated  to  the  service  of  the 

sun  in  Peru,  308 
WRITING.     Of  the  Nahua,  34-35  ; 

of    the    Maya,    159-166  ;     Dr. 

Le    Plongeon    and    the    Maya 

hieroglyphs,  239 

X 

XALAQUIA.  I.  Festival  of  Chi- 
comecohuatl,  86-87.  H-  The 
victim  sacrificed  at  the  Xala- 
quia  festival,  87,  90 

XALISCO.  District  in  Mexico 
Toltecs  in,  12 

XALTOCAN.     Mexican  city,  50 

XAN.  An  animal  mentioned  in 
Popol  Vuh  myth,  225 

XAQUIXAHUANA.  Place  in  Peru, 
284 

XAUXA.     Place  in  Peru,  285 

XBAKIYALO.  Wife  of  Hunhun- 
Apu,  220 

XBALANQOB  (Little  Tiger).  A 
hero-god,  twin  with  Hun-Apu; 
in  a  Kiche  myth.  211-219; 
in  the  myth  in  the  second  book 
of  the  Popol  Vuh,  220,  223-227  ; 
mentioned,  237 

XECOTCOVACH.  Bird  in  the 
Kiche  story  of  the  creation.  209 

XIBALBA.  I.  A  semi -legendary 
empire  of  the  Maya,  144.  [I. 
The  Kiche  Hades,  "  Place  of 
Phantoms  "  ;  in  the  myth  in 
the  second  book  of  the  Popol 
Vuh,  220-222,  225-227  ;  pos- 
sible origin  of  the  conception, 
229  ;  properly  a  "  place  of  the 
dead,"  229  ;  origin  ot  the  name, 
229 

XIBALBANS.  In  the  myth  in  the 
second  book  of  the  Popol  Vuh, 
221,  225-227  ;  the  originals  of, 
228-229;  nature  of,  229 

XILONEN.  Form  of  Chicomeco- 
huatl,  85 

XIMENES.  FRANCISCO.  Copied  and 
translated  the  Popol  Vuh,  207 

XIPE  (The  Flayed).  Mexican  god, 
91-92  ;  his  dress  assumed 
by  Aztec  monarchs  and 

365 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


lead«ri,     91-92  ;      Xolotl    has 
affinities    with,    95  ;     God    A 
thought  to  resemble.  174 
XIUHTECUTLI  (Lord  of  the  Year). 
A  name  of  the  Mexican  fire-god, 

95 

XIUMALPILLI.  In  Mexican  calen- 
dar, 40 

XIYAN  CAAN.     City  in  Yucatan, 

153 

XMUCANE  (Female  Vigour).  The 
mother-god  in  the  Kiche  story 
of  the  creation  in  the  Popol 
Vuh,  209  ;  in  the  Vukub-Cakix 
myth,  212-213  ;  in  the  myth 
in  the  second  book  of  the  Popol 
Vuh,  220-225  ;  equivalent  to 
the  Mexican  Omeciuatl,  236 

XOCHICALCO  (The  Hill  of  Flowers). 
A  teocalli  near  Tezcuco,  33-34 

XOCHIMILCOS.     Aztec  tribe,  233 

XOCHIPILLI.  A  name  of  Macuilxo- 
chitl,  which  see 

XOCHITLA.  A  flower-garden  near 
Tollan;  the  legend  of  Tez- 
catlipoca  and,  63 

XOCHITONAL.  Monster  in  the 
Mexican  Other-world,  38 

XOCHIYAYOTL  (The  War  ot 
Flowers).  Campaign  for  the 
capture  of  victims  for  sacrifice, 
98-99,  100 

XOLOTL.  I.  King  of  the  Chichi- 
mecs,  20  ;  Teotihuacan  rebuilt 
by,  33.  II.  A  sun-god,  93-94  ; 
of  southern  origin  and  foreign 
to  Mexico,  93  ;  probably  iden- 
tical with  Nanahuatl,  93  ; 
representative  of  human  sacri- 
fice, 93  ;  has  affinities  with 
Xipe,  93  ;  representations  of, 

94 

XPIYACOC.  The  father  god  in 
the  Popol  Vuh  story  of  the 
creation,  209  ;  in  the  Vukub- 
Cakix  myth,  212-213  ;  in  the 
myth  in  the  second  book  of  the 
Popol  Vuh,  220  ;  equivalent  to 
the  Mexican  Ometecutli,  236 

XQUIQ  (Blood).  A  princess  of 
Xibalba,  daughter  of  Cuchu- 
maquiq ;  ill  Pop ol  Vuh  myth, 

222 


XULO.      A  sorcerer  mentioned  in 
Popol  Vuh  myth,  227 


YACATECUTLI.  Tutelar  god  of 
travellers  of  the  merchant  class 
in  Mexico,  114;  the  Maya 
Ekchuah  probably  parallel  with, 
177 

YAHUARHUACCAC.  Seventh  Inca, 
283 

YAHUAR-PAMPA  (Plain  of  Blood). 
Battle  of,  285 

YAMQUISUPA.  Village ;  Thonapa 
and, 319 

YANACACA.  Rocks  ;  in  a  myth 
of  Paricaca,  327 

YAOTZIN  (The  Enemy).  A  mani- 
lestation  of  Tezcatlipoca,  66 

YATIRI  (The  Ruler).  Aymara 
name  of  Pachacamac  in  his 
form  of  Pachayachachic ; 
Huaina  Ccapac  and,  299 

YEAR.     The  Mexican.  39,  40 

YBTL.  God  of  natives  of  British 
Columbia,  12  ;  probably  cog- 
nate with  Quetzalcoatl,  12, 

83 
YMA     SUMAC     (How    Beautiful). 

Daughter  ot  Curi-Coyllur  ;    in 

the   drama   Apu-Ollanta,    252- 

253 
YOALLI     EHECATL     (The    Night 

Wind).       A   manifestation   of 

Tezcatlipoca,  66 
YOHUALTICITL.         A     name     of 

Metztli,  which  see 
YOLCUAT.     Form  of  Quetzalcoatl. 

84 

YOPI.  Indian  tribe ;  Xipe  adopted 
from,  92 

YUCATAN.  Settlement  of  the 
Maya  in,  151-152  ;  architec- 
tural remains  in,  178 

YUCAY.     Inca  ruins  at,  269 

YUM  KAAX  (Lord  of  the  Harvest 
Fields).  Maya  deity  ;  God  E 
probably  identical  with,  174 

YUNCA.  Name  given  to  the 
tropical  and  lewland  districts 
of  P«ru,z53 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


YUPANQUI  PACHACUTIC.  Ninth 
Inca,  known  also  as  Pacha- 
cutic.  See  Pachacutic 


ZACATECAS.  Mexican  province,  32 
ZAPOTECA.  Aboriginal  Mexican 
race,  23  ;  builders  of  Mitla,  31  ; 
their  calendric  system,  38  ;  and 
Quetzalcoatl,  84-85  ;  creation- 
myth  of,  121-122  ;  Maya  in- 
fluences transmitted  to  the 
Nahua  through,  147  ;  in  effect 
a  border  people,  influenced 
by  and  influencing  Maya  and 
Nahua,  147  ;  oi  Nahua  stock, 
»47 


ZAQUB.    Aboriginal  Mexican  race, 

24 

ZIPACNA     (Cockspur     or    Earth- 

heaper).     Son  of  Vukub-Cakix  ; 

in  a  Kiche  myth  in  the  Popol 

Vuh, 211-213,  216 
ZIPPA.      A  chieftain  of  the  Chib- 

chas,  276 
ZOQUB.     A  chieftain  of  the  Chib- 

chas,  276 
ZOTUTA.        Region    in   Yucatan 

inhabited      by      remnant     of 

Cocomes,  1 56 
ZOTZILAHA  CHIMALMAN.          The 

Maya  bat -god,  called  also  Cama- 

zotz,  171-172 
ZUMARRAGA.    Mexican  chronicler, 

13 
ZUTUGIL  dialect,  145 


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